
Kambojas are very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda. They are known to belong to ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The Kambojas still live as Kamboj and Kamboh in greater Panjab and as Kams/Kamoz and Katirs/Kamtoz of Siyaposh tribe, in the Nuristan province of Afghanistan. Their numbers have greatly dwindled, and currently, the total population still known by their ancient name(s) is estimated to be about 1.5 million. ==Origin & language== Buddhist Jatakas, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Herodotus (Book I.140) and Avesta (Zoroastrianism) texts indicate that ancient Kamboja was the center of Iranian civilization. This is evident from the Mazdean religious customs of ancient Kambojas, that is, the people of Kamboja, as well as from the Avestic dialect they spoke. It is now widely accepted among the scholars that the Kambojas formed Avestan speaking group of the East Iranians and were located mainly in north-eastern parts of Afghanistan and parts of Tajikstan. Scholars also believe that the Zoroastrian religion had originated in East Iran in the land of the Kambojas. Noted authorities like Dr Christian Lassen, Dr E. Kuhn, Dr S. Levi, Dr M. Witzel and numerous others have traced the ethnic name Kamboja in the royal name Kambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (Cambyses of Greeks). Kambujiya was the name of several great Persian Monarchs of Achaemenid line. The same name appears as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyran, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elemite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language. Cambyses III, son of Cyrus the Great, is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.) and the havoc he had wrought upon this country. ==Original Home== In ancient literature and inscriptions, the Kambojas are frequently listed with the Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, and Sakas etc, which tribes are known to belong to Uttarapatha. The Epics, Puranas and other Sanskrit literature specifically state the Kambojas as a tribe located in Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e northern division. Yasaka's Nirukuta (II/2) attests that verb 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' was used by the Kambojas and only the Kambojas. It has been proved that the modern Galcha dialects viz. Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the head waters of Oxus still have the continuants of the ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense 'to go'. The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe around head-waters of Zerafshan in Sogdiana also still contains relic from ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense ''to go''. Further, the former language of Badakshan was also a dialect of Galcha which is stated to have been replaced by Persian language in the last few centuries only (Linguistic Survey of India, X, p 456) The linguistic evidence combined with numerous literary and inscriptional evidence has led many noted scholars to conclude that ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the 'Galcha' speaking area of Central Asia. Thus, the ancient Kamboja probably had comprised Pamirs, Badakshan and possibly parts of Tajikstan including Yognobe region in the doab of Oxus of Central Asia. Roughly on East, it was bounded by Yarkand and/or Kashgar , on West by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on North-West by Sogdiana, on North by Uttarakuru, on South-East by Darada and on the South by Gandhara. Later, some sections of the Kambojas had crossed Hindukush and planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajori. This view is fully supported from Mahabharata (2/27/23-25) which specifically draws our attention to the Kambojas in the cis-Hindukush region as neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-Kambojas across the Hindukush as neighbors to the Rshikas (or Tukharas) of Ferghana/Sogdiana. The two separate Kamboja settlements are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography which references a geographical term 'Tambyzoi' located on river Oxus in Badakshan and an 'Ambautai' people living on southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae. Scholars have identified Ptolemian ''Tambyzoi'' and ''Ambautai'' with Sanskrit Kamboja. Yidga sub-dialect of Galcha Munjani is still spoken on southern sides of Hindukush in Paropamisadae which further strengthens the view that Kambojas did move to southern side of Hindukush. With time, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region came under Indian cultural influence. This probably is the reason as to why the ancient Kambojas are attested to have both Indian as well as Iranian affinities. Still later, some sections of the Kambojas had moved further to Arachosia which fact is attested from the Aramaic version of Greco-Aramaic inscriptions of king Ashoka found in Kandahar. Some scholars have identified original Kamboja with Arachosia, which view does not seem to be correct. ==Kshatriya Caste== In India, the Kambojas seem to have belonged to the Kshatriya caste of the Indo-Aryan Society. The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas is Panini (scholar)'s fifth century BCE Ashtadhyayi. Panini refers to the Kamboja Janapada and mentions it as ''one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas'' of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas (Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-175). The Harivamsa attests that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were ''formerly Kshatriyas''. It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas and other allied tribes from their Kshatiyahood (Harivamsa 14/19) and forbidden them to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Harivamsa, 14/17). Harivamsa also calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e foremost among the Kshatriyas. Manusmriti attests that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc were originally ''noble Kshatriyas'' but were gradually degraded to the status of Sudras on account of their omission of the sacred rites and of their not consulting the Brahmanas (X/43-44). The Mahabharata also specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally ''noble Kshatriyas'' but later got degraded to barbaric status due to their neglect of the Brahmanas (MBH 13/33/31-32). Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) attests ''Kshatriya Shrenis'' (Corporations of Warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras and some other nations and notes them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare. The legend of Daivi Khadaga or Divine Sword detailed in Shantiparva of Mahabharata (12/166/1-81) also powerfully endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas. The sword, as a ''symbol of Kshatriyahood'' was awarded to the warrior king Kamboja by Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, the celebrated king of Kosala, from whom it passed on to a Yavana king Muchukunda (MBH 12/166/77-78). Bhagavatam Purana (2.7.35) references a king of Kambojas and calls him as ''powerfully armed mighty warrior'' (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja). Kalika Purana (20/40) refers to a war between Buddhist king Kali (Maurya Brihadratha) and Brahmanical king Kalika (Pusyamitra Sunga) where the Kambojas came as military supporters to Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180) BCE. The Purana notes the Kamboja warriors as (Kambojai...bhimavikramaih) i.e the Kambojas of ''terrific military prowess'', which again endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas. There are more such-like references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature which further document the ''Kshatriyahood'' of the Kambojas. ==Master Horsemen== The horses of the Kambojas were famous through out all periods of ancient history. Ancient literature is overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses. The Puranas, the Epics, Ancient Sanskrit plays, the Buddhist Jatakas, the Jaina Canons and numerous other ancient sources all agree that the horses of the Kambojas were a foremost breed. In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the 'birth place of horses' (''Kambojo assánam áyatanam''.... Samangalavilasini, I, p 124). Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa states the Kamboja as the 'base of horses' (10/28). Jaina Uttaradhyana-Sutra (11/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it. Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) lists best horses from various lands, but puts the steeds from the Kamboja at the head of the list, and specifically marks them the leaders among the best horses (Kamboja....mukhyanam). In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful steeds of Kamboja were of greatest service ( Dr B. C. Law). Ramayana (1/6/22), Kautiliya's Arthashastra (2/30/32-34), Brahmanda Purana (II,2.16.16), Somes'ara's Manasollasa (4.4.715-30), Ashva.Chakitsata by Nakula (p 415), Raguvamsa (4/70) and Mandakraanta of Kalidasa, Karanabhaar(19) of Bhaasa, Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhypithika and numerous other ancient texts and inscriptions make highly laudatory references to Kamboja horses and state them the finest breed. Vishnuvardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore had the Kamboja horses and he had made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses. These references amply demonstrate that the Kamboja horses were sleek, very powerful and a foremost breed. They have been especially noted for their great fleetness and remarkable behavior in the battle field. No doubt, the Kamboja steeds had been the prized possession of the kings and the warriors in ancient times. It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas i.e. horsemen. Their clans in Kunar/Swat valleys have been referred to as Assakenois and Aspasios in classical writings and Ashvakayanas and Asvayanas in the Ashtadhyayi. Mahabharata specifically refers to the Kambojas as ''Ashva-Yudha-Kushalah'' i.e expert cavalrymen (MBH 12/105/5). Dronaparva highly applauds the Kamboja cavalry, and states it as extremely fast and fleet (Kambojah... yayur.ashvair.mahavegaih...MBH 7/7/14). The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources amply attest that the Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars. Therefore, it is no exaggeration that the ancient Kambojas were horse lords and masters of horsemanship as Mahabharata rightly styles them. ==Kambojas in Indian Texts== The Kambojas find reference in numerous Sanskrit and Pali literature including Samveda, Atharvaveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, Kautiliya's Arthashastra, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Buddhist Jatakas, Jaina Canons, ancient grammar books and plays etc. ===Mahabharata Traditions=== Shantiparva of Mahabharata refers to a Kamboja king who was awarded the prized sword by Dhundhumara aka Kuvalashava, the celebrated king of Ayodhya (MBH 12/166/77). It was probably from this Kamboja that his country/tribe came to be called Kamboja (Puranic Encyclopaedia, Vettam Mani). Adiparva refers to a powerful king of Kambojas called Chandravarma and descibes him as an incarnation of Asura Chandra, foremost among the sons of Diti and handsome as the lord of the stars himself (MBH 1/67/31-32) . Sabhaparva refers to another king of Kambojas called Kamatha Kamboja who has been counted among principal Kshatriyas invited by king Yudhishtra on the inauguration ceremony of the imperial palace at Indraprastha (MBH 2/4/22) Sabhaparva informs us that a king of the Kambojas had taken part in the Rajasuya sacrifice of king Yudhishtra (MBH 2/532/3). Sudakshina, the illustrious monarch of Kambojas had participated in the Swayamvara of princess Draupadi of Panchala country (MBH 1/185/13). ====Epic War and the Kambojas==== Among the Kshatriya tribes in the great Epic, the Kambojas occupy a very prominent place. They were allies of Duryodhana and by their bravery, and especially the prowess of their king Sudakshina, they had rendered great service to Kuru side in the long drawn battle at Kurukshetra (Dr Law). Sudakshina had joined Bharata war leading a grand army of wrathful warriors of Kambojas, Sakas and the Yavanas. The mass of his one Akshauhini army is stated to look like a swarm of locusts (MBH 5/19/21-22). Sudakshina was one of the few Maharathas or great heroes on the field (Dr Law). Mahbharata numerously refers to Sudakshina as a great Maharathi (''Sudakshinan tu rajendra Kambojanam maharatham''), lionlike (''Purushavyaghrah''), a volcano giving out flames (''Kamboja.vadava.mukham''), a lion among the chariot-warriors (''ratha.simhasya'') and a Mahabali/Mahabahu undefeatable even by the gods in the battle (MBH 7/158/64-66) etc. Sudakshina had fought very ferociously until slain by Arjuna on 15th day of the war. He roared like a lion (''sinha.nadamathanadat'') as he fought and had given Arjuna indeed a tough fight. In the final and deadly duel brave Sudakshina had seriously wounded Arjuna and sent him into a terrible swoon, but finally was overcome and fell a magnificent martyr to Kuru cause (MBH 7/92/61-76). Younger brother of Sudakshina had also participated in the Bharata war and had fought ferocious duels on Kurus' side. This tall and extremely handsome prince was also finally slain while fighting valiantly with Arjuna on 17th day of the war (MBH 8/56/111-114). The Mahabharata repeatedly applauds the mighty and immense army of the Kambojas, calling it a flooded river, invincible in the battle. There are numerous references to countless Maharathas or great heroes of the Kambojas (MBH 7/113/61). The Kamboja warriors have been described as 'strikers of fierce force' (''tigmavega.praharinam''). In hot war-field, the Kambojas have been described as elephants gone berserk (''durvarana nama Kamboja''); war-intoxicated warriors, biting the lips in rage as they fought (''damshitah krurakarmanah Kamboja yuddhadurmadah''); Death-personified (''samana.mrityavo''); deadly like cobras (''tikshnai.rashivishopamah''), and terrible like Yama the god of death and rich like Kuber the god of wealth (''Yama vaishravan.opamah'') etc. Dronaparva of Mahabharata terms the entire Kamboj soldiery as fiercely brave, scholars of Vedas (''kritavidyashcha''), firmly devoted to the science of weapons, highly united, self-sacrificing and well-wishers of each other (7/112/43-44). ===Puranic Literature=== Puranic literature groups the Kambojas with the Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Paradas and refers to a social custom prevalent among them which was against that of the Hindus. The Hindus by religion were ordained to support a ''sikha'' or knot on head and therefore, looked askance towards those who had their hair ''cropped short'' (mundah). Puranas say that with the help of ayudhajivi sanghas of above-said tribes known as ''five hordes'' (pañca.gana), the Haihaya and Talajangha Indo-Aryans had dethroned Vedic King Bahu of Ayodhya. However, a generation later, Bahu's son Sagara had recaptured Ayodhya after completely destroying Haihayas and Talajanghas. Sagara was about to crush the ''five hordes'' when Sagara's priest Vasistha intervened. Vasistha advised Sagara to let the hordes go after meting them out a lighter punishment. Listening to his Spirtual Guide, Sagara forbade these invaders to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Vedic rituals), thus ''divesting them of their Kshatriyahood''. Sagara also forced the Kambojas and Yavanas to shave whole of their heads, Sakas to shave half, Pahlavas to grow beards and the Paradas to wear their hair free (Harivamsa 14.1-19) ''The story apparently has been tuned to explain certain peculiarities of these foreigners by suggesting that their peculiar hair styles were due to their defeat at the hands of Sagara''. Prevalence of short hair style among the Kambojas is also attested from Mahabharata (7/119/23) as well as from Ganapatha on Panini's rule II.1.72 (''Kamboja-mundah, Yavana-mundah''). ===Kautiliya's Arthashastra=== Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Kautiliya contrasts ''Varta.shastr.opajivin'' (martial republican) Sanghas with the ''Raja.shabad.opajivin'' (king-council) Sanghas and includes the Kamboja and Surastra Kshatriyas in the 'Varta-shastr.opajivin' or 'martial republics' category. :Kamboja.Surastra.ksatriya.shreny.aadayo 'vaartta.shastra.upajiivinah'. :— ''(Arthashastra 11/1/4)'' i.e Corporations of warriors (''Kshatriya shrenis'') of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agriculture, trade and by wielding weapons (Dr R Shamasastry). Kautiliya also attests that the ''Shrenis'' or corporations of the 'Shastr-opajivins' (i.e the Kambojas and Surastras etc) were the most heroic and best source for military recruitment (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28). The martial republics mentioned in Kautiliya Arthashastra are headed by Kambojas (Dr Jayswal). The democratic constitution of the Kambojas is also testified by Mahabharata which refers to several brave Ganas or Republics of the Kambojas (''Kambojana cha ye Ganah....sangrame shura sammatah'') fighting on Kurus' side. Thirteenth Rock Edict of king Ashoka also affirms that the Kambojas, Yavanas etc were republican or kingless nations (''araja.visyavasi yonakambojesu..'') within the Mauryan empire. ===Buddhist Literature=== The Anguttara Nikaya refers to Kamboja as one of the sixteen great nations of ancient times (Anguttara Nikaya, I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261). The same fact is also conveyed by one of the oldest Pali commentary, the Chullaniddesa. The Majjhima Nikaya attests that in the lands of Yavanas, Kambojas and some other frontier nations, there were only two classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves. The Arya could become Dasa and vice versa: :Yona-Kambojaseu annesu cha panchchantimesu janapadesu dvea vanna, :ayyo ceva daaso ca ayyo hutva daaso hoti daaso hutva ayyo hoti ti. :— ''(Majjhima Nikaya 43.1.3)'' The Commentary [Majjhima Commentary, II, p.784] informs that a Brahmin would go to Kamboja or Yavana with his wife for purpose of trade and would die there, his wife would then be compelled to work for her living and her children might consort with slaves, in which case their children would be slaves. This attests that in the lands of Kambojas and Yavanas (''yonakambojesu''), there was no place for Brahmanas. Ashoka's R. E. XIII also attests Yona and Kamboja as a pair (''Yonakambojesu''), and conveys similar information on Yonas (directly) and the Kambojas (indirectly) stating that Brahmanas and Shramanas are found every where in his empire except in the lands of Yonas etc: :nathi cha se janpade yata nathe eme nikayia anataa yonesu bahmane cha shamne. :— ''(R.E XIII)''. The Vishnu Purana also affirms the absence of ''chatur-varna system'' among the Kiratas in the east and the Yavanas, Kambojas etc in the pashchima or west (Vishnu Purana, 2/37). Kamboja.sutta of Anguttara Nikaya states that, in spite of their desire, Kamboja is ''not to be visited by women of other countries'' (Anguttara Nikaya, II. p82). The Commentary (Manorathapurani, Anguttara Commentary, II, p 523) also supports this fact. This implies that there was, perhaps a shortage of women in Kamboja, and it was probably unsafe for women from other countries to visit Kamboja. Bhuridatta Jataka refers to the Kambojas as following the non-Aryan (i.e Zoroastrian) customs like killing poisonous insects, moths, snakes and worms--which is recognized as Zoroastrian from passages in Mazdean books like the Vedevat (XIV.5-6) and from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140). ===Valmiki Ramayana=== In Adi-Kanda of the Ramayana (1/55/2-3), one reads that the Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas and some other allied tribes of north-west were 'created' at the request of sage Vasistha by the Divine cow Shavala to defend sage Vasistha from the forces of king Vishwamitra (Dr B. C. Law). This poetical 'creation' of the Kambojas etc may point to some remote attempt on the part of some Brahmana rishi of Vasistha line to proselytize Iranian Kambojas and other allied clans of the north-west into brahmanised Kshatriyas of the Indo-Aryan version. These Hinduised Kambojas later became ardent champions of Vedic religion and the great scholars of the Vedas. Kamboja Aupamanyava was a distinguished scholar/grammarian and finds a place in the line of great ancient Vedic teachers of Vamsa Brahmana (1/18-19) of Sama Veda. Being a Kamboja and son of Upamanyu, this Kamboja sage was referred to as Kamboja Aupamanyava. Dr Ludwig, Zimmer, Pusalkar, Law etc identify sage Upamanyu of Rig Veda (1.102.09) with the father of Kamboja Aupamanyava. The Hinduised Kambojas are found ''listed at par with the Vasisthas'' in Paraskar Grihyam Sutram according to which the Kambojas and Vasisthas had common custom to wear one choti on right side of the head. :dakshinatah Kambojaanaam Vasisthaanaam, :ubhayato Atri Kashyapaanaam mundah Bhriguh, :panchachuda Angris.Bajasneyaanaameka manglarth shikhinoanyai/ :— ''(Chudakarma Samskaara, Paraskara GrhyaSutram 2.1.23, Commentary: Pt Harihar)'' This shows that the social and religious customs of the Brahmanised Kambojas and the Indo-Aryan Vasisthas were identical but differed from other scholarly clans of ancient India. The Bahu/Sagara Puranic legend also testifies very intimate relationship of the Kambojas with the Vasistha clan. There are several references in Sanskrit and Pali literature which inform us of the scholarship of Kambojas. The Mahabharta (7/112/43-44) reveals that, besides being fierce warriors, the Kamboja soldiers were also noted as learned people (''kritavidyashcha''). The Vasistha clan appears to have played a leading role in proselytising the Persian Kambojas, especially the cis-Hindukush Kambojas living in Kabol/Swat and Rajori region, into Hinduism. There are further indications that Kaundanya line of Brahminas, an offshoot from Vasisthas, also had good relations with the Kambojas, especially those Kambojas who had settled in western and southern India after Christian era. ==The Kambojas and Alexander the Great== As the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as a cavalry-men (ashvaka), the ''Ashvakas'' i.e. ''horsemen'' was also the term popularly applied to them. These Ashvakas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan and were included in the general term Kambojas (Dr K. P. Jayswal; Dr. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukherjee; Dr Singh, Dr L.M. Joshi etc). French scholars like Dr E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas (Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte). [[Image:AlexanderTheGreat_Bust.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Alexander III in the British Museum.]] The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: " The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid dynasty, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called ''Aspasios'' and ''Assakenois'' known in the Indian texts as ''Ashvayana'' and ''Ashvakayana'' " (Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Dr Buddha Parkash) These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboj clans had fought the invader to a man. When worst came to worst, even the Ashvakayan Kamboj women had taken up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring 'a glorious death to a life of dishonor' (Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270). The Ashvakas had fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander The Ashvayans (Kambojas) were also a good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from big number of the bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had not known, which Alexander captured from them and decided to send them to Macedonia for agriculture (History of Panjab, I, p 226). According to one line of scholars, name Afghan has evidently been derived from Ashvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian. (C. Lassen, J. W. McCrindle, Saan Martin, Phillip Smith etc). ==The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire== The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain works Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalyan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Mudrarakshas, II). [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Capital of one of the inscription-bearing pillars erected by Emperor Ashoka (272 BCE-231 BCE), at Sarnath around 250 BCE.]] With the help of these frontier martial tribes from the north-west, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great as well as the Nanda rulers of Magadha and succeeded in founding the Maurya Empire in northern India. The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. The Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as 'araja vishaya' in Rock Edict XIII which shows that they were kingless i.e Republican units. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors. Ashoka had sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism and has recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V. Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa attest that Ashoka had sent thera Mahárakkhita to Yona and Majjhantika to Kasmíra and Gandhára to preach Dharma among Yonas, Gandharas and Kambojas. Sasanavamsa specifically attests that Maharakkhita thera went to Yonaka country and established Buddha's Sasana ''in the lands of the Kambojas and other countries'' (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p 49) Thus, the Zoroastrian as well as the Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his envoys. ''See also: Edicts of Ashoka'' ==Migration into India and Beyond== [[Image:Indo-GreekKingdomMap.jpg|thumb|250px|Maximum extent of the "yavana" Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE.]] Other references to Kambojas abound in ancient literature, and this may have been just the expansion of an Indo-European tribe with both Persian and Indic affinities from their homeland in the Afghanistan-Turkistan region along the foothills of the Himalayas towards Bengal, along the coast to Gujarat, to Sri Lanka, and possibly further to Cambodia. During second/first century BCE, in their advance from their original home in Central Asia, one stream of the Kambojas, allied with the Sakas and Pahlavas had proceeded to Sindhu, Sovira and Surastra; while the other stream allied with Yavanas appears to have moved to Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the Mlechcha kings of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlika, Abhira etc will rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga (MBH 23/187/28-30). According to Dr H. C. Ray Chaudhury, ''this is too clear a statement to be ignored''. [[Image:DemetriusCoin.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Silver coin depicting the "yavana" Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I of Bactria (r.c. 205-171 BCE), invader of India around 180 BCE.
Obv. Draped and wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India.
Rev. Youthful, naked Heracles, crowning himself with right hand, with lion skin and upright club resting on his left arm. Greek legend: BASILEOS DIMITRIOU "King Demetrius".]] This statement, couched in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, alludes to a historical situation (second/first century BCE downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India. The invading hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas,Pahlavas, Abhiras etc from the north-west had entered Punjab, United Province, Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat in large numbers, wrested political control of northern India from the Indo-Aryans and had established their respective kingdoms/principalities in the land of the Indo-Aryans. This chaotic situation of Aryan India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Pahlava hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (60 c BCE) and the establishment of the Vikram era (See: Brhatakatha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra; cf: Kathasritsagara 18/1/76-78) ===The Kambojas in Mathura=== Sufficient evidence exists that around Christian era, Yavanas, Kambojas and the Sakas had occupied the heartland of India, i.e. the modern state of Uttar Pradesh Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana refers to the invasion of Panchaala, Mathura, Saketa and Pataliputra by the ''Yavanas'' (Ref: Brhatsamhita, Bibilotheca Indica, 1965, Intro., pp 37-38, Kern; Greeks in Bacteria and India, 1951, W. W. Taran, Apprendix) Though the Kambojas are not specifically mentioned in this passage, it goes without saying that the term ''Yavanas'' in Yuga-Purana defintely included the Kambojas and probably also the Sakas. It is notable that after massive intrusion of India by Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas around Christian era, the term ''Yavana'' had also become synonymous with ''Mlechcha'' and was a common ''designation'' for all ''foreign tribes'' irrespective of whether they were Yavanas, Sakas, Kambojas or others (See: Hellinsm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Williams-Monier Sanskrit-English Dictionary). Passages exist in the Mahabharata, Vayu Purana (I/58/81-83, II/37/106-09) and Matasya Purana (144/51-58) which include the Kambojas among the Yavanas and designate both as ''Yavanas''. There is another reason for this too. The culture of the Kambojas had been substantively altered due to their intimate contacts with the Yavanas. Both people are attested to follow common culture, social customs and mannerism like supporting short cropped hair, non-entertainment of Brahmanas and observing two varna (Arya and Dasa) social system instead of chatur-varna observed by the Indo-Aryans etc. The ''Yonakambojesu'' expression in Ashoka's R.E XIII as well as in the Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3) powerfully attest very close relations of the Kambojas with the Yavanas. ''Thus, it is not unusual that the Kambojas have sometimes been indiscriminately included among the Yavanas and addressed as such, in the later Sanskrit literature.'' According to Dr Buddha Parkash: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered India and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5)....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Satrap (''Kshatrapa'') Rajuvula found in Mathura " (India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr R. K. Mukerjee). [[Image:Rajuvula.jpg|thumb|175px|Coin of Rajuvula (1st century CE).]] Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal). The following verse from Mahabharata composed around the beginning of Christian era strongly attests the Kambojas and Yavanas in control of Mathura. :tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./ :ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah.//5 :— ''(MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)'' The Mathura Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharoshthi characters which refers, among others, to Yuvaraja Kharaostas Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuiá, the chief queen of the Great Satrap (''Mahakshatrapa'') Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions, Dr S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars. According to Dr Konow's findings, Rajuvula's chief queen was Aiyasi ''Kamuiá'' who was the daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaostas, himself also a ''Kamuia''. By rigorous linguistic analysis, Dr Konow has also established that name ''Kamuia/Kamuio'' of Lion Capitol Inscriptions is the Khroshthised form of Sanskrit Kamboja, Kamboja , or Kamboja (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum II, Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi and p 36, Dr S. Konow) Thus, there is both literary as well as inscriptional evidence which amply attests the presence of ancient Kambojas in Mathura. ====King Maues: a Kamboj king==== Further, the scholars have also identified Yuvaraja Kharaostas of the Lion Capitol inscriptions with Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been examined by Rapson and Luders. Kshatrapa Kharaostas (Khroshtha) was son of Arta as is clear from his coins i.e ''Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putras''. Arta (or Orta) is stated to be brother of king Maues (or Maues). [[Image:MauesBuddhaCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Indian-standard coin of King Moga or Maues. The obverse shows a rejoicing elephant holding a wreath, symbol of victory. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΜΑΥΟΥ (Great King of Kings Maues). The reverse shows a seated king, or possibly Buddha. Kharoshthi legend: RAJATIRAJASA MAHATASA MOASA (Great King of Kings Maues).]] Thus, according to Dr Konow and his line of scholars, king Moga, his brother Arta, Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Khroshtha) Kamuio, and queen Aiyasi Kamuia were all from the ''Kamuiá'' or Kamboja/Kambojaka or Kambuja clan. However, some scholars insist that Maues was of Saka extractions, but there is no conclusive evidence to link Moga to Saka ethnicity. Scholars link Moga to the Sakas simply based on his Maues, Maues or Maues names which are said to be variants of Scythian name 'Mauekes' (Dr Raychaudhary). This is not a very convincing reasoning to identify him as of Saka extractions. As is well known, during few centuries preceding the Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas.. such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc (Dr D. C. Sircar, Dr J. L. Kamboj). This extensive social and cultural admixing due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among these frontier people of north-west. Thus, the identification based merely on so-called Saka-sounding names is no conclusive evidence at all. If one accepts above argument, then how to explain surname ''Kamuia'' used after the names of king Moga's family members? Is ''Kamuia'' also attested as a clan name among the ancient Sakas/Scythians anywhere? The answer is no. As a matter-of-fact, there is no unanimity on the ethnicity of king Moga and his family. [[Image:Maues.jpg|thumb|300px|Greek-standard silver tetradrachm of Maues. The obverse shows Zeus standing with a sceptre. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΜΑΥΟΥ ((of the) Great King of Kings Maues). The reverse shows Nike (mythology) standing, holding a wreath. Kharoshthi legend. Taxila mint.]] Scholars like Dr V. A. Smith say that he was a Parthian king (The early History of India, p 242). Others say that he was Saka king. Latest, Dr S. Konow and many scholars following him say that he was Kamboja king. According to Dr Thomas, the epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capitol exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature. This tells us that Aiyasi Kamuia and Kharoshtha Kamuia were from the Persian denominations hence more likely from Kamboja ethnicity. Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities (Dr Thomas). Thus, the ethnic surnames ''Kamuia/Kamuio'' used with the names of princess Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas in Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions should give enough credibility to the view that king Moga and his family belonged to 'Kamuia' or Kamboja/Kambuja clan. It is reasonable to think that the Kamboja clan of king Moga had become some what ''Scythianised'' in social customs, culture and mannerism due to extensive exposure to the next-door vast community of Central Asian tribes which followed Scythian culture. Under such a scenario, it is absolutely not unusual for the Kamboja family of king Moga to have borne names which may sound somewhat Scythian or mixture of Scythian and Parthian. ''Probably, this is the clue to king Moga's ethnic identity''. Therefore, King Maues or Moga and his family were from Kamboja rather than Scythian lineage. There are some European scholars who consider the Kambojas to be a clan of the Sakas. If this view is accepted, it immediately blows off any mist and confusion about true ethnicity of king Moga and his family. But originally, the Kambojas were Aryan not Scythian, in culture. ===The Kambojas in West/Southwest India=== Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira (6th century AD) locates one Kamboja settlement specifically in the South-west (''nairrtyam dizi'') of India as neighbors to Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida. e.g. :nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah/ :hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surastra Badara Dravidah/ :— ''(Brhat Samhita 14/17-19)''. Markendya Purana also locates a Kamboja settlement in the south-west India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (Surashtra) countries (Markandya Purana, 55/30-33). ''Arthashastra'' of Barhaspatya (Ed. F. W. Thomas, pp 20-22) refers to Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) locating it adjacent to Dasrana country, south-east of Gujarat (Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, 1950, p 127). Vishnu Dharmottari (I.9.6) also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India (Geog. Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206) Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India. e.g. :sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha: :— ''(Raajbilaas 1/122)''. The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living ''in southern division of India'' (''dakshina.path.vasinah'') e.g. :pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah: :carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah: :— ''(Garuda Purana 1/15/13)''. Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in Indian mainland.... ''Kambhoja'' in south-west India and ''Kamboja'' in southern parts of India (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305). The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish the historical fact that in wake of major events of second/first century BCE, some sections of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India. The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c AD). Due to the above literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Dr Aiyangar, Dr Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat. ''Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature. Some historians have also invested western ''Kshatrapas'', especially the ''Kshahrata Kshatrapas'' with Kamboja ethnicity (Ancient India, III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah) Interestingly, Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is very popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventuours king of Kambojas. It probably relates to some historical brush the Andhraites might have had with the intruding hordes of Kambojas/Pahlavas around Christian era. The Kamboja hordes of second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western india. The ''Kamb/Kambuh'' river and ''Kamboh/Kambo'' mountain in Sindh ( Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick) remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja. The ''Kamboi'' (ancient town/port), ''Kambhey'' (port) in Surashtra, ''Kumbhoj/Kambhoj'' (an ancient town) in Kohlapur in Maharashtra, and the ''Koimb-toor'' city of Caranatica in southern India carry unmistakeable footprints of the Kambojas. There is a ''Kambhoj'' caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra which probably is a dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas who had settled in SW India around Christian era. ===Kambojas in Bengal=== A third branch of these Central Asian Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards along the Himalayan foothills, hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet (Kam-po-ji/Kam-po-ce) and Nepal (Kambojadesa). Fifth century CE Brahma Purana (53/16) mentions Kambojas with Pragjyotisas and Tamraliptikas. Sasanavmsa (P.T.S., pp 64-65, 83 etc) also attests the Kambojas in/around Burma. They were probably a section of those Kambojas who figure in history of Bengal. They had made an unsuccessful bid to conquer Gauda during the reign of king Devapala. A latter attempt of Kambojas was crowned with success and they deprived the Palas of the suzerainty over Gauda and set up one of their chiefs as king (History of India, p 399, Dr V. A. Smith) Rajyapala, Narayanapala, Nayapala, Dharamapala and Gaudapati, also known as Kunjarghatavarshayan, are the known Kamboja kings who ruled in north-west Bengal. Kamboja rule in north-west Bengal is attested from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription as well as from Irda Tamrapatra found in Irda, District Balasor, Orissa, in 1931 (Edited/published by Dr N. G. Majumdar, 1934). Dinajpore Pillar inscription refers to a Kamboja king who is described as Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati.. i.e. the lord of Gauda born in a Kamboja family (Indian Antiquary, I, 1872, pp 127ff, 195ff, 227 ff; Journal of Royal Society of Bengal, II, 1911, pp 615-19). In the inscription, this Kamboja king is addressed as ''Kunjarghataversheyan'', which may be his nick-name. Irda-Tamrapatra inscription details generation after generation of kings belonging to Kamboja family. King Rajayapala, the founder father of Pala-Kamboja empire in Bengal specifically refers to himself as Kamboja.vamshatilaka.paramasaugata.maharajadhiraja.parameshvara.paramabhattaraka Rajyapala (Epi. Indica, XXII, 1933-34, pp 150-58) ''Jaganathaparkasha'' composed by Pandit Sura Misra in honor of Jagana Natha born in Kamboja family (''Kamboja.kulavatansah.shri.Jagananatha iti prasidhah'') refers to him as a famous king ruling in Bengal in 16th century (Notices of Sanskrit MSS, V, no 1790). ===Kambojas in Sri Lanka=== Inscriptional and Literary Evidence One section of north-western Kambojas appears to have reached Sri Lanka via Gujarat/Surastra, several centuries prior to Christian era, thus contributing to the colonization of that island and influencing the social, cultural and economical lives of its people. This is evident from six or seven ancient cave inscriptions found in Anuradhapura which strongly attest the existence of Kamboja Goshatha/Sangha (''Gote Kabojhiana''...Archaological Survey of Ceylon, Inscription Register No 316) and the Grand Kamboja Guild (''Kabojiya mahapughyana''.....op. cit. Inscription Register No 1118) in ancient Sinhala. These inscriptions are said to belong to third century BCE (Dr S. Paranavitana). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the ''fourth century'', also attests a group of people called the Kambojas in Rohana. The third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, reveals that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni. Sasanvamsa attests one Bhiksu Tamalinda thera, son of Kamboja, living in ancient Sinhala. It also attests a Kamboja king Srihamsyia, who came from Kamboja and took possession of Ratanapura in south-west Sinhala (Sasanavamsa, (P.T.S), p 40, 100; Some Kshatriya Tribes, p 249/50, Dr Law). The second most referenced ethnic group following the Aryan Kambojas in the ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura are the (Dravidian) Damedas or Tamils. Term Dameda occurs in four inscriptions. Term Mileka (Mlechcha) referring to the Aborigines of the island i.e the Veddas, occurs twice. Other three terms Muridi (=Murinda?), Meraya (Maurya?) and Jhavaka each occurs only once. ''It is noteworthy that there is no reference whatsoever, to name Sinhala in any of these ancient inscriptions''. The first ever reference to Sinhala is noted in 4th century Dipavamsa. This proves that the Sinhala identity for the majority Sinhlese speaking Aryan population had evolved much later, down the road. The above inscriptional and literary evidence shows that the Kamboja colonists from north-west had formed an important and pre-dominant section of ancient Sinhala society, perhaps from several centuries prior to Christian era. Therefore, they must have been the first Aryan colonists to have reached the island. The Sinhapura of Ancient Sinhalese Mahavamsa traditions reveal that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan population, had migrated from some Simhapura country located in India proper (Mahavamsa, 6/34). Mahabharata attests one ''Sinhapura'' principality located in north-west of India. This Sinhapura figures prominently in Arjuna's Digvijay of north-west countries. It is stated to be located contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara, in Kashmir). After the Sinhapura, the Epic makes reference to Bahlikas (Panjab? or Bacteria?), Daradas and Kambojas, thus showing that the Sinhapura of Mahabharata was located in the north-west adjacent to Kambojas and Daradas of Upper Indus (See: MBH 2/27/18-22) . Chetiya Jataka also locates one ''Simhapura'' in the west (Jataka III, p 275). Hiuen Tsiang, seventh century Chinese visitor also attests one ''Simhapura'' (Sang-ho-pu-lo) on east bank of river Indus about 115 miles east of Taxila, which localizes it in upper doab of Jhelum/Chenab (Ref: Hiuen Tsiang, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I. Trans. Samuel Beal, 1906, pp 142-150) Scholars have located this Sinhapura in upper Salt Range, north-west of Panjab (Struggle of Empire, p 33, Classical Age, p 132). Sinhala, as a personal name is also attested from two Kharoshthi inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Taksashila in ancient Gandhara (Kharoshthi Insc., pp 87, 110, Dr. Konow). The appellative terms ''Gamika'' (=Gamini=Gramini) and ''Parumaka'' (=Pramukha) and the corporational terms ''Puga'' (=Guild/Sangha) and ''Gote'' (=Goshati=corporation) etc have been used specifically in reference to Kambojas in the ancient inscriptions of Sinhala. As attested by Kautiliya's Arthashastra, these republican/corporational terms were applied to political, military and commercial Sanghas or Guilds of the Kambojas of Uttarapatha around 4th c BCE. Thus, this evidence suggests that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the ancestors of the ancient Sinhalas may have been from the Kambojan/Gandharan trade group. The 'shaved-headed tradition' about Vijay and his companions has been referred to in the Mahavamsa. This also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group. Archeological Finds The most famous and only known locale for lapis lazuli since ancient times was in Badakshan in north Afghanistan which has been mined for over 6000 years. The Badakshan province undoubtedly formed a part of ancient Kamboja as we have already proved above. Archeological finds of lapis lazuli (of Badakshan type) from Sri Lanka conclusively connect it to Badakshan in Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli. Numerous coins, beads and the intaglios belonging to Bacteria/ Afghanistan have also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Apart from lapis lazuli, coins and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Kamboja/Gandhara/Bacteria region are further revealed by other articles of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schist, (yet unpublished), was unearthed from the excavations at Jetavanarama in Anuradhapura. All these archeological finds conclusively establish a very close relationship between Sri Lanka and the north-west communities, especially, the Kambojans/Gandharans of Afghanistan/Central Asia. A Merchant Lineage In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a ''Sarthavaha'' is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are traveling in a caravan. It is likely that Vijay Simha, the ancestor of the Sinhalese was the earliest one such ''Sarthavaha'' from the ''Simhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara group in North-west India''. According to Mahavamsa traditions, Vijay and his 700 companions had landed in Sri Lanka in 543 (or 483?) BC, on the day of Buddha's heavenly departure. This may actually refer to Vijay's commercial visit to Sri Lanka for trade with the Daemedas/Tamils in Sinhala and then permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Daemeda/Tamil groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried on from the north-west following ancient Kamboja-Dvarka Caravan Route and then via the west-coast sea-route starting from Bharukachcha in Gujarat. The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of motis/gems and was known as Motimannar. The south-east coast was also known for its precious stones. The merchants from north-west Kamboja had an allurement for these specific products. It is also significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses (Vinaya Pitaka, III, 6; Játaka, Vol II, 287, Fausboll). Evidence exists that horse merchants from Kamboja were in active trade as far as Ceylone. This trade had been going on with eastern, western and southern India as late as medieval ages. King Devapala (810-850) of Bengal and King Vishnuvardhana Hoysala (1106 - 1152) of Mysore had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalry. Dr Don Martino observes: ''The traders from north-west Kamboja had been conducting trade in horses with Sri Lanka following west coast of India since remote antiquity'' (Epigraphia Zeylanka, Vol II, No 13, p 76). More evidence exists which point to closer links of north-west Kambojas/Gandharas with the ancient Sinhalese. ===Kambojas in Indo-China=== Some ambitious Kamboja families from Gujarat/Surashtra or those from Sri Lanka appear to have ventured into Indo-China around third or fourth century CE, originally as merchants/traders, later followed by some Kshatriya Kamboja chieftain. They managed to found a small Kamboja colony north of Funan, which later grew into powerful Kamboja empire under the Varman kings. ''If the European traders, located thousands of miles away could do it in eighteenth century in India, the Kamboja adventurers from Gujarat/Surastra or Sri Lanka could have done it in fifth century in nearby Indo-China too.'' The Kambojas as traders and as ethnic community were already flourishing in Sri Lanka at this time as is evident from the archeological evidence presented above. With one little step forward, they were in Indo-China. ''The ruling family of Varman kings of Cambodia proudly trace their lineage to the Kambojas or Kambojas''. King Kambu (Sanskrit Kamboj), the legendary patriarch of Kambuja (Kamboja) ruling family of Cambodia was, to all probability, a warrior/scholar Kamboja chieftain from Sinhala or else from Gujarat. The tradition among north-Indian Kambojas lends adequate credibility to this view. [[Image:Seihamuni.jpg|thumb|200px|Kamboj lineage: The current King of Cambodia, HM Norodom Sihamoni]] Several noted scholars like Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr P. C. Bagchi, Dr B. R. Chatterjee, J. Fergussan, Dr R. K. Mukerjee, Bombay Gezetteer, Dr J. L. Kamboj and several others have accepted a direct historical and political link between the Indian Kambojas and Cambodia . G. Coedes, an authority on ancient Cambodian history, has also accepted the probability of this connection (Indianized States of South-East Asia, 1964, p 47). One school of scholars including Dr V. A. Smith, Dr Joveau Dubreuil, Dr V. Venkayya, Dr B. L. Rice, G. Coedes etc is convinced that the Pallava rulers of Kanchi/Southern India were a section from the Iranian Pahlavas. The Pahlavas were a tribe closely allied to the Kambojas. Thus, some adventurous families from both the Pahlavas and the Kambojas who are attested to have settled in south-west India in post-Christian era (Ref: Brhat Samhita (14/17)) may indeed have founded the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi and the Kambojas dynasty of Cambodia respectively. ==Modern Kamboj and Kamboh== Kamboj/Kamboh diaspora The Kamboj or Kamboh living in upper India (Greater Panjab) are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Buddhists and the Jains. The Tajiks, Siyaposh tribe (Kam/Kamoz, Katir/Kamtoz) of Nuristan, Yashkuns and the Yusufzais of Eastern Afghanistan and NWFP of Pakistan are said by various scholars to have descended from the ancient Kambojas. The Kamboj are also found in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Ganganagar in Rajasthan. A minuscule agrarian community called Kambhoj is living in Maharashtra which probably has descended from those Kambojas who had settled in South-West India around Christian era. Kamboj/Kamboh traditions The Kambohs are stated to be the ancient inhabitants of Iran (Denzil Ibbetson, H. A. Rose, S. S. Gill, Chaudhri Wahhab Ud-Din). The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala & Jullundur (Panjab) claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradtion that their ancestors came from Kashmir. Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan. The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true. The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from ''Garh-Gazni'' (Afghanistan). Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the ''phera'' during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home: :''Garh Gazni Nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas''. :Translation: Originated from the fort of Gazni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (Panjab). Muslim Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient ''Kai'' dynasty of Persian Empire, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Panjab (H. A. Rose, A. H. Bingley, H. M. Elliot, Dr G. S. Mansukhani, R. C. Dogra, etc). Kamboj/Kamboh during Muslim Rule Muslim Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. General Shahbaz Khan was the most trusted general of Akbar. Sheikh Gadai was the Sadar-i-Jahan in Akbar's reign (Akbar Nama, Abu-L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122). The Sayyids and the Kambohs from among the Indian Muslims were ''specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule'' (The composition of the Mughal nobility, Encyclopedia Britannica Online; The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali). The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position (H. A. Rose; D. Ibbetson). Kamboj/Kamboh as Agriculturists The modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago as powerfully attested by Arthashastra (11/1/04) and Brhat Samhita (5/35). Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India. Britsh colonial writers like Rose and Denzil note the Kamboj and Ahir agriculturists as the first rank husbandmen and they rate them above the Jats (Panjab Castes, 1974, p 149, D. Ibbetson; Glossary, II, pp 6, 442, H. A. Rose). Col Lal Singh Kamboj, landlord from Uttar Pradesh, was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam Shri award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists (Origin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004, Principal Sewa Singh). According to Dr M. S. Randhawa (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Agri. Univ. Ludhiana, Panjab), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity (Out of Ashes, p 60). Physical Charactersitics of Kamboj/Kamboh Several foreign observers have described the modern Kambojs as very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race (Bingley, Rose) . Some British ethnologists have described the Kambohs to be ethnically more akin to the Afghans than any of the Hindu races among which they have now settled for generations [The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57). There is a medieval era Persian proverb current in north-west which conveys that the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues . :Agar kuht-ul-riajl uftad, azeshan uns kam geeri, :Eke Afghan, doum Kamboh, seum badzat Kashmiri'. :— ''(Persian proverb)'' This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris had been living pretty much as neighbors and were one inter-related racial group. 'During reign of terror in India (18th/19th centurry), it was the Kambohs (Kamboj) only who were most trusted by the rich bankers for carrying their cash in the disguise of faqirs' (Quoted in: Glossary of Tribes, p 444; Panjab Castes, p 149; cf: Census Report of India, 1880). The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting. They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible strategy of war (The Sikhs and the Wars: Reginald Holder: (From Panjab: Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, 1970, S. No 7, Ed Dr Ganda Singh)) The modern Kamboj are generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, generally very fair (gaura varna) race having brown, some times redish hair, and brown or sometimes gray eye color and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are noted for their beauty. In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as very handsome race (MBH 7/23/43). Ancient Kamboj princes have also been noted as tall (MBH 8/56/113), exceedingly handsome (MBH, 7/92/74, 8/56/113), of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like full moon (MBH 8/56/113), lotus eyed (MBH 8/56/113), handsome like the lord-moon among the stars (MBH 1/67/31). Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas as 'ravisanibha' i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun (Ramayana 1/55/2). Ancient Kamboja ladies were also noted for their beauty (Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; MBH 11/25/1-8) Kamboj in Sports The Kamboj have made outstanding contributions in wrestling, hockey, and Kabaddi. Jodh Singh, Natha Singh, Hazara Singh, Santa Kharasia, Bakshisha, Chhiba, Khushal, Chanan, Maula Bakhsh etc are the few foremost Panjabi Kamboj wrestlers of yester-years who had earned great name and fame in wrestling. Olympian Prithipal was probably the greatest hockey full-back of the 20th century. Known as King of short-corner and the Mahabahu of Indian hockey, Prithi was the first Indian to win the Arjuna Award, and later Padam Shri Award in hockey. Rasool Akhtar, President of Pakistan Hockey Federation, is one of the greatest hockey Olympians from Pakistan. A fifteen year old Chandita is the most brilliant emerging roller hockey player of India. Rattan Singh alias Rattu has been the greatest defender in freestyle Kabaddi. General The total population of this people, still calling themselves as Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) or Kambhoj is estimated to be around 1.5 million, rest of their population, over the time, having submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the subcontinent. The Kambohs, by tradition, are divided into 52 and 84 clans. 52 line section is stated to be descendants of Cadet branch and 84 from the elder Branch. This is claimed as referring to the young and elder military divisions under which they had fought the Bharata war. Numerous of their clan names overlap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west must have descended from the Ancient Kambojas.(cf: Glossary, II, p 444, fn. iii). The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue( Jat Tribes of Zira, p 138; Glossary , II, p 444) Indo-European
== Handling citations == As I try to clean up this article, the one thing I am not sure how to handle is the numerous citations. They are sprinkled in within the overall narrative which makes it very difficult to read. Does anyone have a good example of how to do format this best? Also, there doesn't seem to be an accepted style to present a sanskrit shloka, so I have adapted a style I have found elsewhere and expanded on it. Please comment. Finally, I may have actually found an error in the first shloka I tried to style. The text of the article states that it is from the Mahabharata, book 12 (Shantiparva) page 207, verses 43 and 44. However, based on http://www.hindunet.org/mahabharata/txt/12.txt, the actual reference seems to be page 200, verses 40 and 41. I have changed the citation accordingly. Would anyone confirm that this is correct please? User:SpikedZebra 00:23, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC) **Thanks SpikedZebra Actually, there is no error. The verse number (MBH 12/207/43-44) which you are refereing to I have based it on the Gorakhpore edition of Mahabhara. You have changed it in accordance with online Critical Edition of Mahabharata. To be noted here that there are some discrepancies and differences between Gorakhpore Mahabharata and the online Critical edition. I have mostly relied on verse-references from the Gorakhpore edition. KLS P.S. I'm also thankful to Bluemoose for sectionalizing the article. ==KAMBOJA SRI-LANKA CONNECTIONS== SOME INSCRIPTIONAL REFERENCES TO ANCIENT KAMBOJAS IN ANCIENT SRI LANKA....THE MOST RERENCED ETHNIC COMMUNITY IN THE INSCRIPTIONS [1] no. 622: 'Gamika-Kabojhaha lene' The cave of the village-councillor Kamboja; Paranavitana, 1970: [2] no. 623: 'Gamika-Siaa-putra gamika-Kabojhaha lene' The cave of the village-councillor Kamboja, son of the village-councillor Siva' Paranavitana, 1970: [3] (no. 625) (1) 'Cam ika-Siua-putra gamika-Kambojhaha jhitaya upasika-Sumanaya lene.' The cave of the female laydevotee Sumana, daughter of the village-councillor Kamboja. Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [4](no 625) (2) 'gamika Kabojhaha ca sava-satasoyesamage pati' The cave of the son of the village-councillor Siva. May there be the attainment of the Path of Beatitude for the village-councillor Kamboja and for all beings. 75 J. Bloch, 0950: 103, 130), ... Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [5](no. 553): 'Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana Manapadaiane agataanagat-catu-disa-agaia' [The cave] Manapadassana of the members of the Great Corporations of Kambojiyas, [is dedicated] to the Saiügha of the four quarters, present and absent. Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [6] (no. 990): 'Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na parumaka-Gopalaha bariya upasika-Citaya lepe iagaio' The cave of the female lay-devotee Citta, wife of Gopala, the chief of the incorporated Kambojiyas, [is dedicated] to the Saiügha. Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [7] Mediaval age inscription, refering a KAMBOJA VASSALA (i.e Kamboja Dawara/or Kamboja gate) found from Polonnaruva near Vishnu temple. Discovered in 1887 by S. M. Burros. (Ref: Journal of Ceylone B Branch of Royal Asiatic Society., Vol X., X No 34, 1887, pp64-67). [8] Mediaval age inscription (1187-1193 AD), found from Ruvanveli Dagba, Anaradhapura in Sri Lanka. It refers to Kambojdin people, which is modified version of Kamboja. (Ref: Don Martino de Zilva Wickeremsinghe, Epigraphicia Zeylanka, Vol II., Part I & II., p 70-83; Rhys David, J.R.A.S. Vol VII., p 187, p 353f; Muller. E. AIC., No 145; J.R.A.S., Vol XV., 1914, pp 170-71). See below the wording of this inscription written in Sinhali belended with Sanskrit. 'Nuvarata hatapsina sata gavaka pamanah tana haam satuna no narye hakhye abhaya di ber lava dolos meh va tana masuta abhaya de Kambojdin ran pili aadibhu kamati vastu de paksheen no badan niyayen samata kota abhaya dee' See original text in the reference quoted below or in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 354, Dr J. L. Kamboj). (Epigraphia Zeylanka Vol II., p 80). THE GRAMANIS OF THE WEST-INDUS MAY HAVE BEEN THE ANCESTORS OF MAJORITY OF SINHALESE POPULATION. Not only the Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka refer to the guilds/Sanghas/corporations (Puka/Pugas, Gote/Goshata) among Sri Lankan Kambojas but also they refewre to their republican titles like Gamika (=Gamini=Gramani) and Paramaka (Parmuka/Parmukha i.e chief of the Sanghas). The Gramani as a royal title is not referred to in ancient Sanskrit literature. However, Gramani as a Puga/Sangha term is referred to in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. Also MBH makes references to Gramani people/Sangha located in west of river Indus. One Gramani group had organised themselves into a Puga (Sangha) and are referenced to have been living on west of Indus, first in Upper Indus and then the lower Indus, from where they appear to have moved to Gujarat/Surashtra and then finally some section of them onto Sri Lanka. The ethnic connections of these republican Gramaney people are not mentioned anywhere. Mahabharata refers to the fight of Nakula with these powerful Gramanis living on the banks of lower Indus in western India. :Sanskrit: ::gananutsava sanketanvyajayatpurusharshabha . ::sindhukulashrita ye cha gramaneya mahabalah .//8. ::— ''(MBH 2/32/9)'' The corrupted form of this ''Gramani'' of Indus is the Gamini or Gamika of the Brahami inscriptions abundantly found in Anuradhapura and some other locations in Sri Lanka. Surprisingly, though not a royal title in India proper, the Gamani as a royal title (for king/raja) has been profusely used by ancient kings of Sinhala. The Gamini as a title/appellation was mostly applied to heads of trade guilds/corporations/Sanghas and also some-times to political Sanghas/Pugas in north-west as is the case of Lower Indus Gramanis of MBH. It appears likely that the ancestors of Sinhala either belonged to the above Republican Graminis or else they may have been closely connected with them (History of Ceylone, Vol I, Part I, p 91, Dr S Parnavitana; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 349-353, Dr Kamboj). All circumstantial evidence therefore indicates that the Gramanis of Mahabharata and of Panini's reference had moved from upper west Indus to lower Indus and then probably to Gujarat and finally, one section of them may have made it to Sri Lanka. The existence of ancient well known Kamboja Dravati Caravan Route implies that the trader groups from Kamboja were familiar with ancient regions of Sindhu, Sovira, Surashtra and further the western Indian coastal areas as far as Sri Lanka. (see Kamboja-Dvarka ancient trade Route and the Kambojas) Mahavamsa (6/34) states that ancestors of the Sinhalese came from Sinhala-kalpa or Sinhapura in Lata desha. '''Also there is mention that Vijay's father had left his maternal grand-father's country (Sinhapura) and had founded a new colony in Lata-rattha (=Lata Rashtra). We have already seen one Sinhapura located contiguous to Ursa/Hazara west of Jammu/Kashmir''' i.e near the ancient land of Kambojas/Gandharas. The Gramanis refered to in MBH who are said to be living on Indus thus may well fit Vijay's migrant clan as refered to in Mahavamsa. Vijay's father may have moved from Upper Indus to lower Indus i.e in Lata-Desha/Surashtra, where a reference to Gramanis is also made in MBH. There is one Sinhore located in Kathiawada. In the Gift records of king Valbhi, this Sinhore has also been referred to as Sinhapura (Epigraphia Indica, XVII, p 110; also see Dr J. L. Kamboj). It is thus perfectly conceivable that the migrant clan of the Gramanis (probably same as that of Vijay's father) may have founded this town in Kathiawada/Surashtra several centuries prior to Christian era and may have named it also as ''Sinhapura'' in memory of their Sinhapura of Upper Indus. It is stated that Vijay and his 700 companions had started off their sea vovage to Sri Lanka from Sinhapura in Lata-Desha and caravan is stated to have passed through Bharukachcha and Soparka sea ports located on west coast of India. Thus this discussion may imply connections of Gramanis of lower Indus with Sinhapura of Upper Indus (neighbor to Kashmir/Hazara) as well as with the clan of Vijay Sinha's, the ancestor of Sinhalese. Mahavamsa (6th c AD creation) states that the ancestors of Sinhalese i.e Vijay Simha was a prince, but Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka rather allude to earlier Sinhalese settlers most likely as coming from some trader's group. Thus, Vijay Sinha's being a chief/leader/Sarthavaha of some carvan of the merchants/traders from north-west in the remote past is more likely a possibility. The group led by Vijay Sinha may have visited the island for purpose of trade but may have finally settled in the island and become its permanent residents. These Anuradhapura inscriptions profusely refer to Gramani (Gamini, Gamini/Gamika) as a chief of trader's guild. In Pali texts, the tiltle appears as Sarthavaha. The Pramaka (Parmukha, Chief) used for the head of guild/corporations in these Brahmi inscriptions also points in the same direction. All these terms (Gamika/Gamini/Gramani, Gote, Puga, Gote/Goshat etc) are pure republican in character and belong to north-west. And most interestingly, they are found to have been prevalent among ancient Kambojas groups (MBH, Kautiliya, Panini evidence). Thus, one can easily conceive that Vijay's clan may have been the same as that of the republic Gramaneys of lower Indus as referred to in MBH. And further, this Gramani clan had migrated from upper Indus to lower Indus, then to Surashtra/Kathiawada and finally a section of them had landed in Sinhala. And further, this clan may have been an offshoot from the Gandharan/Kambojan ethnic group...the former inhabitants of Sinhapura of Upper Indus. This is because the ancient Sinhalese inscriptions make numerous references to the Kambojas from north-west. No other ethnic group from North-west or north-east has been referred. The Meryas (=Mauryas..mentioned ''only once'' in the inscriptions) may have been migrants from Meros (of Arrian) ....the modern Koh-i-Mor of Swat/Kunar region. There is absoluterly no reference to Anga, Kalinga, Vanga, Gandhara or any other Aryan group of north-east or north-west India nor there is any reference to name Sinhala itself in these numerous inscriptions. The Milekas of the Sinhalese inscriptions (referenced twice) were the aborigines (Veddas). The other dominant group was the Daemedas (Tamilians) from Dravidian group from Southern India who find mention in three Inscriptions. Mahavamsa was composed in 6th c AD, about 800-900 years from the date of these Inscriptions. Undoubtedly, Mahavamsa represents later conditions of Sinhala island when population from north-east India (second and later stream) had also come and settled in the Island. Unlike ancient cave inscriptions, Mahavamsa does make references to Anga, Vanga, Kalinga. But this is later phenomenon. And being literary traditions, the Mahavamsa may have been interpolated/re-written to reflect the later historical/political realities of the island. The absence of the name Anga, Kalinga, Vanga etc in these ancient inscriptions shows that there was as yet no population from the north-east India and north-easterners had only joined the north-west Aryan speaking group much later in time. Thus the original stream of migrants, the so-called ancestors of the Sinhalese population, to Sinhala island were indeed from north-west and to all probability, they were from the Kambojan republican ethnic group. The 'shaved-headed tradition' referred to in Mahavamsa about Vijay and his companions also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group. There are numerous other reasons which also point to north-west being the home of ancient Sinhalas. ==KAMBOJAS IN SRI LANKA: OPINIONS FROM SOME SCHOLARS== ===Kamalika Pieris=== Osmund Bopearachchi points out that here is epigraphical evidence to indicate that Sri Lanka had a closer relationship with the regions of Afghanistan. The word 'Kaboja' occurs in three* inscriptions from Koravakgala (Situlpauva) in the Hambantota district, which was a part of the ancient Rohana. The Kambojas were a native population in the west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin. In addition this site also produced coins from Bactria and North west India. There were also finds of lapis lazuli which were probably from Afghanistan. These indicate a close relationship between Sri Lanka and the communities of Central Asia and Northwest India. For this reason it is believed that the Gandhara (and Kamboja) region was closely connected with Sri Lanka as early as the first centuries of our era. (Observations made at the International seminar on early Buddhist art of Central Asia, Gandhara, India and Sri Lanka, Colombo, 1998)” [By Kamalika Pieris] *Note: As we have seen above, there are 6 or 7 inscrptions in Anuradhapura referencing the Kambojas. ===David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes=== ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ON SHIPPING COMMUNITIES page 108/109 " The second category of beads which deserves attention, is those made from lapis lazuli, becamee the only known source for this material in antiquity was Badakhshan (in northern Afghanwestan). The author of the Periplus mentions lapis lazuli among the products exported from Barbaricum.72 This precious material doubtless travelled along the sea route to reach the southern coast of Sri Lanka. Hema Ratnayake (1993: 8Q.) has also observed that on a painted slab belonging to one of the frontispieces of the Jetavana stupa, there are traces of lapis lazuli underneath the line of geese. He dates it to the third century AD, to the reign of king Mahasena, who built this feature of the stupa. The intaglio depicting a seated wild boar, unearthed along with carnelian seals and beads from Akurugoda (Tissamaharama) on the southern coast of the island, is important in this context. . This type of wild boar is known on Sasanian intaglios.73 The presence of lapis lazuli on the southern coast of Sri Lanka cannot be an isolated event, because epigraphical evidence bears witness to the fact that this area had close relationships with the regions of Afghanistan. 'Kaboja' occurs as a proper name in three inscriptions from Koravakgala (Situlpavua) in the Hambantota District, on the southeastern part of the island, in ancient Rohana.74 S. Paranavitana (1970: xc) believed that the Kabojha, Kabojhiya and Kabojhika are to be connected with the ethnic name Kamboja, which occurrs in Sanskrit and Pali literature as well as in the Vth and Xlllth inscriptions of Asoka, Kabojhiya being equivalent to the derivative term Kambojiya and Kabojika to Kambojika.75 The Brahmi inscription from Bovattegala on the southern border of the Ampari District, a few miles from the northeast limit of the Hambantota District, also in ancient Rohana, refers to 'Kabojhiya-mahapugyiana' i.e.'those who were members of the great corporation of the 'Kabojhivas'.76 The Brahmi inscription from Kaduruvava in the Kurunagala District, to the southwest of Anuradhapura, mentions a parumaka (Chief) of the Gota-Kabojikana, i.e. of the corporation of the Kabojikas.77 These inscriptions indicate that the Kambojas had organised themselves into a corporations and were certainly engaged in trade. The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the fourth century (on page 109) attests that a group of people called the Kambojas were in Rohana. In the third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, we are informed that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni.78 The Kambojas are often mentioned together with Yonas (Yavanas), Gandharas and Sakas. The Kambojas were a native population of Arachosia in the extreme west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin.79 The finds on the southern coast of the island of lapis lazuli from northern Afghanistan and various coins of Soter Megas, Kanishka II, Vasudeva II and posthumous Hermaios, all from Bactria and Northwest India, and the references to the Kambojas of Arachosia, compel us to believe that there were close relationships between Sri Lanka and the communities of Central Asia and North-West India. S. Paranavitana (1970: xci) did not exclude the possibility of the presence of Sakas in the island. His starting point was the inscription in Brahmi script, known as Anuradhapura Rock Ridge West of Lainkarama,so which refers to 'The flight of steps of Uttara, the Murundiya (Muridi-Utaraha seni). Since the epithet 'Muridi' is prefixed to the name '-Utara' (Skt. Uttara), S. Paranavitana believed that Muridi is a derivative of Muruda, which is the same as Murunda in the compound Saka-Murunda that occurs in the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta. S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued,S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued, that murunda is almost certainly a Saka word meaning 'master', 'lord', and he argued that the word murunda has become synonymome with Saka, when applied to royalty. Apart from the coins, beads and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Gandhara region are revealed by other pieces of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schisst, still unpublished, was unearthed from the excavations at at Jetavanarama. Most of the identified 'Hellenistic' and Greek-influenced pottery from the citadel of Anuradhapura, and from our recent excavations at Kelaniya appears to be from the Greek East, in other words, somewhere in Northwest India or Bactria.8' ..." Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, [by David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes] ===Himanshu Prabha=== THE MERCHANT LINEAGE AND THE GUILD Page 194: Sri Lanka also provides evidence for niyama or nigama. The Tonigala rock inscription from the Anuradhapura district dated to the third year of the King Srimeghavarna (303-27 CE) records the grant of grain to the Kalahumanakaniyamatana (nigama-sthana), with the stipulation that only the interest is to be used for the maintenance of the monks (Epigraphia Zeylanica III, 1933: 172-98). Another later Brahmi inscription from Labuatabandigala refers to money, i.e. 100 káhápanas being deposited with the Mahatabaka niyama (247-53). Other terms used for guilds are puka or púga and goti (Sanskrit gosthi), the former often being used in association with either a village (Paranavitana 1970, nos. 135, 138; Dias 1991: no. 5) or community, such as that of the Kambojas (Paranavitana 1970, no. 553). There are references to the chief (jete) and sub-chief (anu- jete) of Sidaviya-puka (no. 1198). Literary texts further corroborate these distinctions, for example those between a general trader (vanik) and the setthi, who was possibly a financier, as opposed to the sárthaváha or caravan leader who transported either his own goods or those of other merchants. The sep thi in the Játakas was a man of immense wealth and hence constantly in the retinue of the king. References to rice fields owned by setthis imply that they were both traders and landowners . . Panini refers to traders as vanik (Astádhyáyi, 111.3.52) and makes a distinction between the krayavikrayika (whose main occupation was buying and selling, IV.4.13), the vasnika (who invested his money in business, IV.4.13), the sarnsthanika (a member of a guild, IV.4.72) and the dravyaka (a trader on the outward journey carrying merchandise for sale, Agrawala 1953: 238). In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a sárthaváha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are travelling in a caravan. There are several alternative arrangements described in the Játakas by which merchants could purchase or obtain goods. When a ship arrived in a port, merchants converged there to buy the goods and often had to pay money in advance to secure a share in the cargo (Book I: no. 4). Alternatively, a merchant could procure goods by mutual agreement with another living along the border . Once, the Boddhisattva was a wealthy merchant in Varanasi and had as a correspondent a border merchant whom he had never seen. There came a time when this merchant loaded 500 carts with local produce and gave orders to the men in charge to go to the Boddhisattva and barter the wares in his.. Page: 205/206. FOREIGNERS AND TRADE NETWORKS The complexity of economic transactions in the ancient period makes it difficult to determine ethnic identities of trading groups. Another problem is the ambiguity of the literary sources and their inability to distinguish between different ethnic identities, as in the case of allusions to Romans, Arabs, Indians and Ethiopians in Greek and Latin accounts. From the first century BCE to the second century CE, while many of the Arabs of the eastern Mediterranean regions were Roman subjects or Roman citizens, others lived beyond the frontiers of the empire and included groups such as Nabataeans, Palmyrenes, Sabaeans and so on. Early Brahmi inscriptions from Sri Lanka refer to two foreign groups involved in trading activity, i.e. the Damila (Sanskrit Dravida) and the Kabojha (Sanskrit Kamboja). The former figure in an important inscription engraved on the vertical rock face to the north-west of the Abhayagiri monastic complex at Anuradhapura. The inscription records that the terrace belonged to Tamil householders (gahapatikana). The floor of the terrace is on different levels, and the names of the owners are engraved on the rock face below their portion of it, e.g. dameda-samana, dameda-gahapati and navika or mariner. Two other inscriptions refer to a Tamil merchant named Visaka and a householder (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 94, 356, 357). These records are further corroborated by references in the Mahávarimsa, which term the damilas 'assandvikas' or those who brought horses in watercraft (chapter XXI, verses 10-12). It is significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses. The inscriptions referring to the Kabojha or Kambojas are found in ancient Rohana and associate the region with the gamika or village functionary (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 622, 623, 625), there are references to the guild of the Kabojhiyas and its chief (Kabojhiya-maha-pugiyana, no. 553; parumaka or chief of the gota (Sanskrit gostha) Kabojikana, no. 990). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of the fourth century, refers to a village of the Kambojas in Rohana. Wheeler identified so-called 'foreign pottery' during his excavations at the site of Arikamedu on the east coast of India (figure 8.5). He used these ceramic finds to endorse not only the nature of trade, i.e., ., Roman, but also the ethnicity of the users and hence suggested an Indo-Roman trading station at the site (Wheeler et al. 1946). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia [Cambridge World Archaeology], 2003, [by Himanshu Prabha Ray] [The above refernces are quoted here with due gratitude]. KLS ==ON MATHURA KAMBOJA LINKS== There is a full size sculputure in Mathura Museum called Kambojaka. Scholar identify it with Aiyasi Kamuia, the chief queen of Kshatrapa Rajuvula of Mathura. (The catalogue of the Sculpultures of the Archaological Museum, Mathura, F. 42J. P. Vogel; cf: Female Images in the Muesums of U.P., and their social Background., p 122, Padama Upadhyaya; India in Kala Dasa, p 200, B. S. Upadhyaya; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 215, 228, 306-09; Dr J. L. Kamboj). Thus Kamuia has been identified with Kambojaka/Kambojika. To be Noted that the standard Sanskrit Kamboja is also found written as Kambojaka in Pali and Kaamboja and Kambuja in Sanskrit literature. (e.g. Kambojake assastare sudante; ete hi dhama araryrupa Kambojakanam vitatha bahunam (Pali); Dakshintai Kambujanam Vashistanam (Sanskrit) etc). See further reference below: Sculptures of Mathura and Sarnath, 'The Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city, housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharosthi character, referring that Ayasi Kamuiá (Kambojika) the chief queen of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula established the relic of Lord Sakyamuni, a stupa and a Sangharama for the order of the four quarters of the Sarvástivádins.48 The record ends with obeisance to all the Buddha, the law, the order and the ~akastána. Thus, this pillar furnishes useful information for the study of Buddhist Church at Mathura" (Sculptures of Mathura and Sarnath, 2002, page 35, Usha Rani Tiwari.) It is notable that Aiyasi Kamuia (Lion Capitol Inscription A) was daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaosta Kamuia (Lion Capitol Inscription E) according Dr Stein Konow and his line of scholars. Yuvaraja Kharaosta is unanimously identified as Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been studied and examined by Rapson and Luders. According to Kharaosta's own coins, he was son of Arta or Orata. Arta is said to be elder brother of king Moga. Since queen Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Kharoshtha) both bear Kamuia as last name in the Lion Capitol Inscriptions, hence scholars have concluded that Arta and Moga were also Kamuia. Making use of science of linguistics, the scholars like Dr S Konow have identified the last name Kamuia with as the Kharoshtised version of Prikritic Kambojaka or Sanskrit Kamboja/Kambuja or Kambujia (cf: O.P Kambujiya). (Linguistic transformation possibilities: In the Mathura Capitol Kharoshthi inscriptions, 'u'. is used for common 'o' as the usual personal name ''Sodas'' is found wriiten as ''Sudas'' in the Mathura Capitol Inscriptions. Also in Khroshthi, 'mb' becomes 'mm' or 'm' as in Dhammapada.... Also the hard 'j' becomes soft 'y' as the Kamboja is also found written as Kamboya in Shahbazgarhi inscriptions of king Ashoka: Hence Kamboja/Kambuja => Kamboya/Kambuya => Kaboia/Kambuia => Kamoia/Kamuia. Similarily, using rigorous linguistics, the Kambojaka => Kamuia, as Dr S. Konow has shown...see Corpus Inscritionum Indicarum (CII), Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi; also see p 36, Dr S Konow). See References: (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, part I, p xxxvi; p 36; see also: Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research society, Vol XVI, 1930, parts III, IV, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 1956, p 220-21, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; cf Comprehensive History of India, 1957, Vol II, p 270, Dr K. A. Nilkantha Shastri; ; op cit, Dr Buddha Parkash, p 154; For detailed discussion, see Ancient Kamboja People & Country, 1981 pp 41, 42, 306-309, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc). King Moga is often connected with Saka clan which is said to have migrated from Issykkul or Tien-shan (Saka country?) in southern direction, passed through Pamirs/Hsuan-tu or hanging pass and settled in Kipin. It is worth noticing that the clan name Kamuia has not been attested amongst the Scythians in any of the ancient sources. Its closest equivalent is Kamboja/Kamboya/Kambu/Kamu. The surname Kamuia obviously points to Sanskirit/Pali Kamboja/Kambuja ir Old Persian Kambujiya. It is obvious that due to time and space proximity, the Trans-Oxian Kambojas, the next door neighbors to Issykkul Sakas had also become somewhat 'Scythianised' in culture by osmotic process if not otherwise, in the centuries preceeding Christian era. The so-called Sai or (Saka) clan which is stated to have settled in Kipin (Kashmir(?) or Kapisha(?)) per Chinese sources, may have actually been the Scythianised section of the Trans-Pamirian Kambojas who had been living off northern-eastern Pamirs or western-Sinkiang province of China and who may also have also joined the Sakas in their southward movements under similar pressures from Yueh-chihs. The Galcha Sri-Qoli as a dialect of ancient Kamboja is attested in western Sinkiang, around river Yarkand, attesting that it may have been a part of ancient Kamboja. Kamuia clan of Moga may have belonged to this section of the Kamboja settlement. That may have been the reason as to why the the Kambojas have some-times been confused with the Sakas. Also, one section of the Kambojas is confused with the Yueh-chihs too. The Kambojas who had lived as neighbors to the Kushans/Yueh-chihs, north of Oxus country (former Parama-Kamboja) had also later migrated to cis-Hindukush region in 2nd/1st c BC along with Kushans/Tukharas and thus some writers like Cunnigham have thought that the Kaofu clan (the Kambu=Kamboja) were a clan of the Yueh-chihs which is not correct. Cunnigham writes: ''....Kaofu was the appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yueh-chih or Tochari, who are said to have given their name to the town (Kabol) which they occupied, towards the end of second century before Christ'' (The Ancient Geography of India, p 15, Col A. Connigham). On the other hand, noted scholars like J.W. McCrindle and many others claim that Kamboja (=Afghanistan) was the Kaofu (Kambu) as mentioned later by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang in his travels. [Ref: J. W. McCrndle, Alexander's Invasions, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 235, Dr B. C. Law; cf: Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, pp 254-255, Dr Buddha Parkash; Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 1943, p 280, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People andthe Country, p 43118, Dr Kamboj etc etc] It also notable that the name Kabol or Kubha (Kophese/Kophen of Greeks) is attested since Vedic times, so this name was not given to this town by the ''Kaofu tribe'' as Cunnigham writes. Thus Cunnigham 's observations on Kaofu tribe as being a Tochari tribe are wrong. The name Kaofu in fact referred to Kambu or Kambuja or Kamboja. In the wake of political turmoils of second/1ist c BC, a section of the Trans-Pamirian Kambojas along with Yueh-chih clans had also crossed Hindukush and settled in the cis-Hindukush region. Hence the Kaofu clan (of the Kambojas) has erroneously been considered a clan of the Yuehchis by Cunnigham. Thus we can see that besides Sakas, the Kamboja clans are sometimes confused with the Kushans/Yueh-chihs also. This is because the Rshikas(Tukharas/Yueh-chihs) and Kambojas have been very close neighbors accross the Oxus as the MBH powerfully attests for us. Arjuna had to fight a fierce battle first with the Kambojas and Daradas in the cis-Hindukush region (Rajori/Swat valley) and after this, with the allied forces of Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and the Rshikas north of Pamir-Badakshan/Tran-Oxian region. :Sanskrit: ::daradAnsaha kAmbojairajayatpAkashAsaniH .. 22..\\ ::prAguttarA.n disha.n ye cha vasantyAshritya dasyavaH . ::nivasanti vane ye cha tAnsarvAnajayatprabhuH .. 23..\\ ::lohAn.PparamakAmbojAn.RShikAn.uttarAnapi . ::sahitA.nstAnmahArAja vyajayatpAkashAsaniH .. 24 ::— ''(MBH 2/27/23-25)'' Writing on political situation in Central Asia created as a result of Hunic pressure on Yueh-chihs and Yueh-Chih pressure in turn on the Sakas of Issykkul etc during second c BC, Dr. D Devhuti observes as follows: :These pressures brought all these tribes from central Asia...-sometimes very indistinguishable from each other-to north-western India around the beginning of the Christian era.[India's Interaction With China, Central and West Asia (Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy & Culture, Volume 3 Part 2) , Philosophy, and Culture Project of History of Indian Science, 80-81, (Dr D. Devhuti)] Also, as it has also been noted by numerous scholars, ''due to intensive cultural admixrture in second and first century before Christ, the social customs, manners, dresses and language of the Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Pahavss etc had become identical. Therefore, it is sometimes very difficult to differentiate one clan/tribe apart from the others'' [Ref: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 308, Dr Kamboj; cf India's Interaction With China, Central and West Asia ( op cit., pp 80-81, Dr D. Devhuti; cf: Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 256-257, Dr Sircar] KLS KAMBOJAS, SAKAS AND YAVANAS IN THE HEARTLAND OF INDIA, INCLUDING MATHURA: Scholars have noted that the ancient sources and Sanskrit literarture composed around Christain Era and after do not very carefully differentiate the Kambojas from Yavansas or the Kambojas from the Sakas, or the Sakas from the Pahlavas and vice versa. Example 1: Sakas counted among the Kambojas: In Kabol area, Ashoka's Rock Edicts only attest Yavanas, Kambojas and Gandharas. Undoubtedly, there was also s
Kambojas
Kambojas are very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda. They are known to belong to ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The Kambojas still live as Kamboj and Kamboh in greater Panjab and as Kams/Kamoz and Katirs/Kamtoz of Siyaposh tribe, in the Nuristan province of Afghanistan. Their numbers have greatly dwindled, and currently, the total population still known by their ancient name(s) is estimated to be about 1.5 million. ==Origin & language== Buddhist Jatakas, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Herodotus (Book I.140) and Avesta (Zoroastrianism) texts indicate that ancient Kamboja was the center of Iranian civilization. This is evident from the Mazdean religious customs of ancient Kambojas, that is, the people of Kamboja, as well as from the Avestic dialect they spoke. It is now widely accepted among the scholars that the Kambojas formed Avestan speaking group of the East Iranians and were located mainly in north-eastern parts of Afghanistan and parts of Tajikstan. Scholars also believe that the Zoroastrian religion had originated in East Iran in the land of the Kambojas. Noted authorities like Dr Christian Lassen, Dr E. Kuhn, Dr S. Levi, Dr M. Witzel and numerous others have traced the ethnic name Kamboja in the royal name Kambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (Cambyses of Greeks). Kambujiya was the name of several great Persian Monarchs of Achaemenid line. The same name appears as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyran, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elemite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language. Cambyses III, son of Cyrus the Great, is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.) and the havoc he had wrought upon this country. ==Original Home== In ancient literature and inscriptions, the Kambojas are frequently listed with the Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, and Sakas etc, which tribes are known to belong to Uttarapatha. The Epics, Puranas and other Sanskrit literature specifically state the Kambojas as a tribe located in Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e northern division. Yasaka's Nirukuta (II/2) attests that verb 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' was used by the Kambojas and only the Kambojas. It has been proved that the modern Galcha dialects viz. Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the head waters of Oxus still have the continuants of the ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense 'to go'. The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe around head-waters of Zerafshan in Sogdiana also still contains relic from ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense ''to go''. Further, the former language of Badakshan was also a dialect of Galcha which is stated to have been replaced by Persian language in the last few centuries only (Linguistic Survey of India, X, p 456) The linguistic evidence combined with numerous literary and inscriptional evidence has led many noted scholars to conclude that ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the 'Galcha' speaking area of Central Asia. Thus, the ancient Kamboja probably had comprised Pamirs, Badakshan and possibly parts of Tajikstan including Yognobe region in the doab of Oxus of Central Asia. Roughly on East, it was bounded by Yarkand and/or Kashgar , on West by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on North-West by Sogdiana, on North by Uttarakuru, on South-East by Darada and on the South by Gandhara. Later, some sections of the Kambojas had crossed Hindukush and planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajori. This view is fully supported from Mahabharata (2/27/23-25) which specifically draws our attention to the Kambojas in the cis-Hindukush region as neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-Kambojas across the Hindukush as neighbors to the Rshikas (or Tukharas) of Ferghana/Sogdiana. The two separate Kamboja settlements are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography which references a geographical term 'Tambyzoi' located on river Oxus in Badakshan and an 'Ambautai' people living on southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae. Scholars have identified Ptolemian ''Tambyzoi'' and ''Ambautai'' with Sanskrit Kamboja. Yidga sub-dialect of Galcha Munjani is still spoken on southern sides of Hindukush in Paropamisadae which further strengthens the view that Kambojas did move to southern side of Hindukush. With time, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region came under Indian cultural influence. This probably is the reason as to why the ancient Kambojas are attested to have both Indian as well as Iranian affinities. Still later, some sections of the Kambojas had moved further to Arachosia which fact is attested from the Aramaic version of Greco-Aramaic inscriptions of king Ashoka found in Kandahar. Some scholars have identified original Kamboja with Arachosia, which view does not seem to be correct. ==Kshatriya Caste== In India, the Kambojas seem to have belonged to the Kshatriya caste of the Indo-Aryan Society. The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas is Panini (scholar)'s fifth century BCE Ashtadhyayi. Panini refers to the Kamboja Janapada and mentions it as ''one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas'' of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas (Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-175). The Harivamsa attests that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were ''formerly Kshatriyas''. It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas and other allied tribes from their Kshatiyahood (Harivamsa 14/19) and forbidden them to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Harivamsa, 14/17). Harivamsa also calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e foremost among the Kshatriyas. Manusmriti attests that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc were originally ''noble Kshatriyas'' but were gradually degraded to the status of Sudras on account of their omission of the sacred rites and of their not consulting the Brahmanas (X/43-44). The Mahabharata also specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally ''noble Kshatriyas'' but later got degraded to barbaric status due to their neglect of the Brahmanas (MBH 13/33/31-32). Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) attests ''Kshatriya Shrenis'' (Corporations of Warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras and some other nations and notes them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare. The legend of Daivi Khadaga or Divine Sword detailed in Shantiparva of Mahabharata (12/166/1-81) also powerfully endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas. The sword, as a ''symbol of Kshatriyahood'' was awarded to the warrior king Kamboja by Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, the celebrated king of Kosala, from whom it passed on to a Yavana king Muchukunda (MBH 12/166/77-78). Bhagavatam Purana (2.7.35) references a king of Kambojas and calls him as ''powerfully armed mighty warrior'' (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja). Kalika Purana (20/40) refers to a war between Buddhist king Kali (Maurya Brihadratha) and Brahmanical king Kalika (Pusyamitra Sunga) where the Kambojas came as military supporters to Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180) BCE. The Purana notes the Kamboja warriors as (Kambojai...bhimavikramaih) i.e the Kambojas of ''terrific military prowess'', which again endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas. There are more such-like references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature which further document the ''Kshatriyahood'' of the Kambojas. ==Master Horsemen== The horses of the Kambojas were famous through out all periods of ancient history. Ancient literature is overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses. The Puranas, the Epics, Ancient Sanskrit plays, the Buddhist Jatakas, the Jaina Canons and numerous other ancient sources all agree that the horses of the Kambojas were a foremost breed. In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the 'birth place of horses' (''Kambojo assánam áyatanam''.... Samangalavilasini, I, p 124). Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa states the Kamboja as the 'base of horses' (10/28). Jaina Uttaradhyana-Sutra (11/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it. Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) lists best horses from various lands, but puts the steeds from the Kamboja at the head of the list, and specifically marks them the leaders among the best horses (Kamboja....mukhyanam). In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful steeds of Kamboja were of greatest service ( Dr B. C. Law). Ramayana (1/6/22), Kautiliya's Arthashastra (2/30/32-34), Brahmanda Purana (II,2.16.16), Somes'ara's Manasollasa (4.4.715-30), Ashva.Chakitsata by Nakula (p 415), Raguvamsa (4/70) and Mandakraanta of Kalidasa, Karanabhaar(19) of Bhaasa, Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhypithika and numerous other ancient texts and inscriptions make highly laudatory references to Kamboja horses and state them the finest breed. Vishnuvardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore had the Kamboja horses and he had made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses. These references amply demonstrate that the Kamboja horses were sleek, very powerful and a foremost breed. They have been especially noted for their great fleetness and remarkable behavior in the battle field. No doubt, the Kamboja steeds had been the prized possession of the kings and the warriors in ancient times. It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas i.e. horsemen. Their clans in Kunar/Swat valleys have been referred to as Assakenois and Aspasios in classical writings and Ashvakayanas and Asvayanas in the Ashtadhyayi. Mahabharata specifically refers to the Kambojas as ''Ashva-Yudha-Kushalah'' i.e expert cavalrymen (MBH 12/105/5). Dronaparva highly applauds the Kamboja cavalry, and states it as extremely fast and fleet (Kambojah... yayur.ashvair.mahavegaih...MBH 7/7/14). The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources amply attest that the Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars. Therefore, it is no exaggeration that the ancient Kambojas were horse lords and masters of horsemanship as Mahabharata rightly styles them. ==Kambojas in Indian Texts== The Kambojas find reference in numerous Sanskrit and Pali literature including Samveda, Atharvaveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, Kautiliya's Arthashastra, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Buddhist Jatakas, Jaina Canons, ancient grammar books and plays etc. ===Mahabharata Traditions=== Shantiparva of Mahabharata refers to a Kamboja king who was awarded the prized sword by Dhundhumara aka Kuvalashava, the celebrated king of Ayodhya (MBH 12/166/77). It was probably from this Kamboja that his country/tribe came to be called Kamboja (Puranic Encyclopaedia, Vettam Mani). Adiparva refers to a powerful king of Kambojas called Chandravarma and descibes him as an incarnation of Asura Chandra, foremost among the sons of Diti and handsome as the lord of the stars himself (MBH 1/67/31-32) . Sabhaparva refers to another king of Kambojas called Kamatha Kamboja who has been counted among principal Kshatriyas invited by king Yudhishtra on the inauguration ceremony of the imperial palace at Indraprastha (MBH 2/4/22) Sabhaparva informs us that a king of the Kambojas had taken part in the Rajasuya sacrifice of king Yudhishtra (MBH 2/532/3). Sudakshina, the illustrious monarch of Kambojas had participated in the Swayamvara of princess Draupadi of Panchala country (MBH 1/185/13). ====Epic War and the Kambojas==== Among the Kshatriya tribes in the great Epic, the Kambojas occupy a very prominent place. They were allies of Duryodhana and by their bravery, and especially the prowess of their king Sudakshina, they had rendered great service to Kuru side in the long drawn battle at Kurukshetra (Dr Law). Sudakshina had joined Bharata war leading a grand army of wrathful warriors of Kambojas, Sakas and the Yavanas. The mass of his one Akshauhini army is stated to look like a swarm of locusts (MBH 5/19/21-22). Sudakshina was one of the few Maharathas or great heroes on the field (Dr Law). Mahbharata numerously refers to Sudakshina as a great Maharathi (''Sudakshinan tu rajendra Kambojanam maharatham''), lionlike (''Purushavyaghrah''), a volcano giving out flames (''Kamboja.vadava.mukham''), a lion among the chariot-warriors (''ratha.simhasya'') and a Mahabali/Mahabahu undefeatable even by the gods in the battle (MBH 7/158/64-66) etc. Sudakshina had fought very ferociously until slain by Arjuna on 15th day of the war. He roared like a lion (''sinha.nadamathanadat'') as he fought and had given Arjuna indeed a tough fight. In the final and deadly duel brave Sudakshina had seriously wounded Arjuna and sent him into a terrible swoon, but finally was overcome and fell a magnificent martyr to Kuru cause (MBH 7/92/61-76). Younger brother of Sudakshina had also participated in the Bharata war and had fought ferocious duels on Kurus' side. This tall and extremely handsome prince was also finally slain while fighting valiantly with Arjuna on 17th day of the war (MBH 8/56/111-114). The Mahabharata repeatedly applauds the mighty and immense army of the Kambojas, calling it a flooded river, invincible in the battle. There are numerous references to countless Maharathas or great heroes of the Kambojas (MBH 7/113/61). The Kamboja warriors have been described as 'strikers of fierce force' (''tigmavega.praharinam''). In hot war-field, the Kambojas have been described as elephants gone berserk (''durvarana nama Kamboja''); war-intoxicated warriors, biting the lips in rage as they fought (''damshitah krurakarmanah Kamboja yuddhadurmadah''); Death-personified (''samana.mrityavo''); deadly like cobras (''tikshnai.rashivishopamah''), and terrible like Yama the god of death and rich like Kuber the god of wealth (''Yama vaishravan.opamah'') etc. Dronaparva of Mahabharata terms the entire Kamboj soldiery as fiercely brave, scholars of Vedas (''kritavidyashcha''), firmly devoted to the science of weapons, highly united, self-sacrificing and well-wishers of each other (7/112/43-44). ===Puranic Literature=== Puranic literature groups the Kambojas with the Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Paradas and refers to a social custom prevalent among them which was against that of the Hindus. The Hindus by religion were ordained to support a ''sikha'' or knot on head and therefore, looked askance towards those who had their hair ''cropped short'' (mundah). Puranas say that with the help of ayudhajivi sanghas of above-said tribes known as ''five hordes'' (pañca.gana), the Haihaya and Talajangha Indo-Aryans had dethroned Vedic King Bahu of Ayodhya. However, a generation later, Bahu's son Sagara had recaptured Ayodhya after completely destroying Haihayas and Talajanghas. Sagara was about to crush the ''five hordes'' when Sagara's priest Vasistha intervened. Vasistha advised Sagara to let the hordes go after meting them out a lighter punishment. Listening to his Spirtual Guide, Sagara forbade these invaders to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Vedic rituals), thus ''divesting them of their Kshatriyahood''. Sagara also forced the Kambojas and Yavanas to shave whole of their heads, Sakas to shave half, Pahlavas to grow beards and the Paradas to wear their hair free (Harivamsa 14.1-19) ''The story apparently has been tuned to explain certain peculiarities of these foreigners by suggesting that their peculiar hair styles were due to their defeat at the hands of Sagara''. Prevalence of short hair style among the Kambojas is also attested from Mahabharata (7/119/23) as well as from Ganapatha on Panini's rule II.1.72 (''Kamboja-mundah, Yavana-mundah''). ===Kautiliya's Arthashastra=== Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Kautiliya contrasts ''Varta.shastr.opajivin'' (martial republican) Sanghas with the ''Raja.shabad.opajivin'' (king-council) Sanghas and includes the Kamboja and Surastra Kshatriyas in the 'Varta-shastr.opajivin' or 'martial republics' category. :Kamboja.Surastra.ksatriya.shreny.aadayo 'vaartta.shastra.upajiivinah'. :— ''(Arthashastra 11/1/4)'' i.e Corporations of warriors (''Kshatriya shrenis'') of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agriculture, trade and by wielding weapons (Dr R Shamasastry). Kautiliya also attests that the ''Shrenis'' or corporations of the 'Shastr-opajivins' (i.e the Kambojas and Surastras etc) were the most heroic and best source for military recruitment (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28). The martial republics mentioned in Kautiliya Arthashastra are headed by Kambojas (Dr Jayswal). The democratic constitution of the Kambojas is also testified by Mahabharata which refers to several brave Ganas or Republics of the Kambojas (''Kambojana cha ye Ganah....sangrame shura sammatah'') fighting on Kurus' side. Thirteenth Rock Edict of king Ashoka also affirms that the Kambojas, Yavanas etc were republican or kingless nations (''araja.visyavasi yonakambojesu..'') within the Mauryan empire. ===Buddhist Literature=== The Anguttara Nikaya refers to Kamboja as one of the sixteen great nations of ancient times (Anguttara Nikaya, I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261). The same fact is also conveyed by one of the oldest Pali commentary, the Chullaniddesa. The Majjhima Nikaya attests that in the lands of Yavanas, Kambojas and some other frontier nations, there were only two classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves. The Arya could become Dasa and vice versa: :Yona-Kambojaseu annesu cha panchchantimesu janapadesu dvea vanna, :ayyo ceva daaso ca ayyo hutva daaso hoti daaso hutva ayyo hoti ti. :— ''(Majjhima Nikaya 43.1.3)'' The Commentary [Majjhima Commentary, II, p.784] informs that a Brahmin would go to Kamboja or Yavana with his wife for purpose of trade and would die there, his wife would then be compelled to work for her living and her children might consort with slaves, in which case their children would be slaves. This attests that in the lands of Kambojas and Yavanas (''yonakambojesu''), there was no place for Brahmanas. Ashoka's R. E. XIII also attests Yona and Kamboja as a pair (''Yonakambojesu''), and conveys similar information on Yonas (directly) and the Kambojas (indirectly) stating that Brahmanas and Shramanas are found every where in his empire except in the lands of Yonas etc: :nathi cha se janpade yata nathe eme nikayia anataa yonesu bahmane cha shamne. :— ''(R.E XIII)''. The Vishnu Purana also affirms the absence of ''chatur-varna system'' among the Kiratas in the east and the Yavanas, Kambojas etc in the pashchima or west (Vishnu Purana, 2/37). Kamboja.sutta of Anguttara Nikaya states that, in spite of their desire, Kamboja is ''not to be visited by women of other countries'' (Anguttara Nikaya, II. p82). The Commentary (Manorathapurani, Anguttara Commentary, II, p 523) also supports this fact. This implies that there was, perhaps a shortage of women in Kamboja, and it was probably unsafe for women from other countries to visit Kamboja. Bhuridatta Jataka refers to the Kambojas as following the non-Aryan (i.e Zoroastrian) customs like killing poisonous insects, moths, snakes and worms--which is recognized as Zoroastrian from passages in Mazdean books like the Vedevat (XIV.5-6) and from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140). ===Valmiki Ramayana=== In Adi-Kanda of the Ramayana (1/55/2-3), one reads that the Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas and some other allied tribes of north-west were 'created' at the request of sage Vasistha by the Divine cow Shavala to defend sage Vasistha from the forces of king Vishwamitra (Dr B. C. Law). This poetical 'creation' of the Kambojas etc may point to some remote attempt on the part of some Brahmana rishi of Vasistha line to proselytize Iranian Kambojas and other allied clans of the north-west into brahmanised Kshatriyas of the Indo-Aryan version. These Hinduised Kambojas later became ardent champions of Vedic religion and the great scholars of the Vedas. Kamboja Aupamanyava was a distinguished scholar/grammarian and finds a place in the line of great ancient Vedic teachers of Vamsa Brahmana (1/18-19) of Sama Veda. Being a Kamboja and son of Upamanyu, this Kamboja sage was referred to as Kamboja Aupamanyava. Dr Ludwig, Zimmer, Pusalkar, Law etc identify sage Upamanyu of Rig Veda (1.102.09) with the father of Kamboja Aupamanyava. The Hinduised Kambojas are found ''listed at par with the Vasisthas'' in Paraskar Grihyam Sutram according to which the Kambojas and Vasisthas had common custom to wear one choti on right side of the head. :dakshinatah Kambojaanaam Vasisthaanaam, :ubhayato Atri Kashyapaanaam mundah Bhriguh, :panchachuda Angris.Bajasneyaanaameka manglarth shikhinoanyai/ :— ''(Chudakarma Samskaara, Paraskara GrhyaSutram 2.1.23, Commentary: Pt Harihar)'' This shows that the social and religious customs of the Brahmanised Kambojas and the Indo-Aryan Vasisthas were identical but differed from other scholarly clans of ancient India. The Bahu/Sagara Puranic legend also testifies very intimate relationship of the Kambojas with the Vasistha clan. There are several references in Sanskrit and Pali literature which inform us of the scholarship of Kambojas. The Mahabharta (7/112/43-44) reveals that, besides being fierce warriors, the Kamboja soldiers were also noted as learned people (''kritavidyashcha''). The Vasistha clan appears to have played a leading role in proselytising the Persian Kambojas, especially the cis-Hindukush Kambojas living in Kabol/Swat and Rajori region, into Hinduism. There are further indications that Kaundanya line of Brahminas, an offshoot from Vasisthas, also had good relations with the Kambojas, especially those Kambojas who had settled in western and southern India after Christian era. ==The Kambojas and Alexander the Great== As the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as a cavalry-men (ashvaka), the ''Ashvakas'' i.e. ''horsemen'' was also the term popularly applied to them. These Ashvakas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan and were included in the general term Kambojas (Dr K. P. Jayswal; Dr. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukherjee; Dr Singh, Dr L.M. Joshi etc). French scholars like Dr E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas (Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte). [[Image:AlexanderTheGreat_Bust.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Alexander III in the British Museum.]] The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: " The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid dynasty, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called ''Aspasios'' and ''Assakenois'' known in the Indian texts as ''Ashvayana'' and ''Ashvakayana'' " (Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Dr Buddha Parkash) These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboj clans had fought the invader to a man. When worst came to worst, even the Ashvakayan Kamboj women had taken up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring 'a glorious death to a life of dishonor' (Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270). The Ashvakas had fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander The Ashvayans (Kambojas) were also a good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from big number of the bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had not known, which Alexander captured from them and decided to send them to Macedonia for agriculture (History of Panjab, I, p 226). According to one line of scholars, name Afghan has evidently been derived from Ashvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian. (C. Lassen, J. W. McCrindle, Saan Martin, Phillip Smith etc). ==The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire== The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain works Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalyan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Mudrarakshas, II). [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Capital of one of the inscription-bearing pillars erected by Emperor Ashoka (272 BCE-231 BCE), at Sarnath around 250 BCE.]] With the help of these frontier martial tribes from the north-west, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great as well as the Nanda rulers of Magadha and succeeded in founding the Maurya Empire in northern India. The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. The Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as 'araja vishaya' in Rock Edict XIII which shows that they were kingless i.e Republican units. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors. Ashoka had sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism and has recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V. Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa attest that Ashoka had sent thera Mahárakkhita to Yona and Majjhantika to Kasmíra and Gandhára to preach Dharma among Yonas, Gandharas and Kambojas. Sasanavamsa specifically attests that Maharakkhita thera went to Yonaka country and established Buddha's Sasana ''in the lands of the Kambojas and other countries'' (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p 49) Thus, the Zoroastrian as well as the Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his envoys. ''See also: Edicts of Ashoka'' ==Migration into India and Beyond== [[Image:Indo-GreekKingdomMap.jpg|thumb|250px|Maximum extent of the "yavana" Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE.]] Other references to Kambojas abound in ancient literature, and this may have been just the expansion of an Indo-European tribe with both Persian and Indic affinities from their homeland in the Afghanistan-Turkistan region along the foothills of the Himalayas towards Bengal, along the coast to Gujarat, to Sri Lanka, and possibly further to Cambodia. During second/first century BCE, in their advance from their original home in Central Asia, one stream of the Kambojas, allied with the Sakas and Pahlavas had proceeded to Sindhu, Sovira and Surastra; while the other stream allied with Yavanas appears to have moved to Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the Mlechcha kings of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlika, Abhira etc will rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga (MBH 23/187/28-30). According to Dr H. C. Ray Chaudhury, ''this is too clear a statement to be ignored''. [[Image:DemetriusCoin.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Silver coin depicting the "yavana" Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I of Bactria (r.c. 205-171 BCE), invader of India around 180 BCE.
Obv. Draped and wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India.
Rev. Youthful, naked Heracles, crowning himself with right hand, with lion skin and upright club resting on his left arm. Greek legend: BASILEOS DIMITRIOU "King Demetrius".]] This statement, couched in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, alludes to a historical situation (second/first century BCE downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India. The invading hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas,Pahlavas, Abhiras etc from the north-west had entered Punjab, United Province, Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat in large numbers, wrested political control of northern India from the Indo-Aryans and had established their respective kingdoms/principalities in the land of the Indo-Aryans. This chaotic situation of Aryan India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Pahlava hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (60 c BCE) and the establishment of the Vikram era (See: Brhatakatha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra; cf: Kathasritsagara 18/1/76-78) ===The Kambojas in Mathura=== Sufficient evidence exists that around Christian era, Yavanas, Kambojas and the Sakas had occupied the heartland of India, i.e. the modern state of Uttar Pradesh Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana refers to the invasion of Panchaala, Mathura, Saketa and Pataliputra by the ''Yavanas'' (Ref: Brhatsamhita, Bibilotheca Indica, 1965, Intro., pp 37-38, Kern; Greeks in Bacteria and India, 1951, W. W. Taran, Apprendix) Though the Kambojas are not specifically mentioned in this passage, it goes without saying that the term ''Yavanas'' in Yuga-Purana defintely included the Kambojas and probably also the Sakas. It is notable that after massive intrusion of India by Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas around Christian era, the term ''Yavana'' had also become synonymous with ''Mlechcha'' and was a common ''designation'' for all ''foreign tribes'' irrespective of whether they were Yavanas, Sakas, Kambojas or others (See: Hellinsm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Williams-Monier Sanskrit-English Dictionary). Passages exist in the Mahabharata, Vayu Purana (I/58/81-83, II/37/106-09) and Matasya Purana (144/51-58) which include the Kambojas among the Yavanas and designate both as ''Yavanas''. There is another reason for this too. The culture of the Kambojas had been substantively altered due to their intimate contacts with the Yavanas. Both people are attested to follow common culture, social customs and mannerism like supporting short cropped hair, non-entertainment of Brahmanas and observing two varna (Arya and Dasa) social system instead of chatur-varna observed by the Indo-Aryans etc. The ''Yonakambojesu'' expression in Ashoka's R.E XIII as well as in the Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3) powerfully attest very close relations of the Kambojas with the Yavanas. ''Thus, it is not unusual that the Kambojas have sometimes been indiscriminately included among the Yavanas and addressed as such, in the later Sanskrit literature.'' According to Dr Buddha Parkash: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered India and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5)....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Satrap (''Kshatrapa'') Rajuvula found in Mathura " (India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr R. K. Mukerjee). [[Image:Rajuvula.jpg|thumb|175px|Coin of Rajuvula (1st century CE).]] Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal). The following verse from Mahabharata composed around the beginning of Christian era strongly attests the Kambojas and Yavanas in control of Mathura. :tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./ :ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah.//5 :— ''(MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)'' The Mathura Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharoshthi characters which refers, among others, to Yuvaraja Kharaostas Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuiá, the chief queen of the Great Satrap (''Mahakshatrapa'') Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions, Dr S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars. According to Dr Konow's findings, Rajuvula's chief queen was Aiyasi ''Kamuiá'' who was the daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaostas, himself also a ''Kamuia''. By rigorous linguistic analysis, Dr Konow has also established that name ''Kamuia/Kamuio'' of Lion Capitol Inscriptions is the Khroshthised form of Sanskrit Kamboja, Kamboja , or Kamboja (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum II, Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi and p 36, Dr S. Konow) Thus, there is both literary as well as inscriptional evidence which amply attests the presence of ancient Kambojas in Mathura. ====King Maues: a Kamboj king==== Further, the scholars have also identified Yuvaraja Kharaostas of the Lion Capitol inscriptions with Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been examined by Rapson and Luders. Kshatrapa Kharaostas (Khroshtha) was son of Arta as is clear from his coins i.e ''Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putras''. Arta (or Orta) is stated to be brother of king Maues (or Maues). [[Image:MauesBuddhaCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Indian-standard coin of King Moga or Maues. The obverse shows a rejoicing elephant holding a wreath, symbol of victory. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΜΑΥΟΥ (Great King of Kings Maues). The reverse shows a seated king, or possibly Buddha. Kharoshthi legend: RAJATIRAJASA MAHATASA MOASA (Great King of Kings Maues).]] Thus, according to Dr Konow and his line of scholars, king Moga, his brother Arta, Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Khroshtha) Kamuio, and queen Aiyasi Kamuia were all from the ''Kamuiá'' or Kamboja/Kambojaka or Kambuja clan. However, some scholars insist that Maues was of Saka extractions, but there is no conclusive evidence to link Moga to Saka ethnicity. Scholars link Moga to the Sakas simply based on his Maues, Maues or Maues names which are said to be variants of Scythian name 'Mauekes' (Dr Raychaudhary). This is not a very convincing reasoning to identify him as of Saka extractions. As is well known, during few centuries preceding the Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas.. such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc (Dr D. C. Sircar, Dr J. L. Kamboj). This extensive social and cultural admixing due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among these frontier people of north-west. Thus, the identification based merely on so-called Saka-sounding names is no conclusive evidence at all. If one accepts above argument, then how to explain surname ''Kamuia'' used after the names of king Moga's family members? Is ''Kamuia'' also attested as a clan name among the ancient Sakas/Scythians anywhere? The answer is no. As a matter-of-fact, there is no unanimity on the ethnicity of king Moga and his family. [[Image:Maues.jpg|thumb|300px|Greek-standard silver tetradrachm of Maues. The obverse shows Zeus standing with a sceptre. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΜΑΥΟΥ ((of the) Great King of Kings Maues). The reverse shows Nike (mythology) standing, holding a wreath. Kharoshthi legend. Taxila mint.]] Scholars like Dr V. A. Smith say that he was a Parthian king (The early History of India, p 242). Others say that he was Saka king. Latest, Dr S. Konow and many scholars following him say that he was Kamboja king. According to Dr Thomas, the epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capitol exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature. This tells us that Aiyasi Kamuia and Kharoshtha Kamuia were from the Persian denominations hence more likely from Kamboja ethnicity. Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities (Dr Thomas). Thus, the ethnic surnames ''Kamuia/Kamuio'' used with the names of princess Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas in Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions should give enough credibility to the view that king Moga and his family belonged to 'Kamuia' or Kamboja/Kambuja clan. It is reasonable to think that the Kamboja clan of king Moga had become some what ''Scythianised'' in social customs, culture and mannerism due to extensive exposure to the next-door vast community of Central Asian tribes which followed Scythian culture. Under such a scenario, it is absolutely not unusual for the Kamboja family of king Moga to have borne names which may sound somewhat Scythian or mixture of Scythian and Parthian. ''Probably, this is the clue to king Moga's ethnic identity''. Therefore, King Maues or Moga and his family were from Kamboja rather than Scythian lineage. There are some European scholars who consider the Kambojas to be a clan of the Sakas. If this view is accepted, it immediately blows off any mist and confusion about true ethnicity of king Moga and his family. But originally, the Kambojas were Aryan not Scythian, in culture. ===The Kambojas in West/Southwest India=== Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira (6th century AD) locates one Kamboja settlement specifically in the South-west (''nairrtyam dizi'') of India as neighbors to Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida. e.g. :nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah/ :hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surastra Badara Dravidah/ :— ''(Brhat Samhita 14/17-19)''. Markendya Purana also locates a Kamboja settlement in the south-west India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (Surashtra) countries (Markandya Purana, 55/30-33). ''Arthashastra'' of Barhaspatya (Ed. F. W. Thomas, pp 20-22) refers to Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) locating it adjacent to Dasrana country, south-east of Gujarat (Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, 1950, p 127). Vishnu Dharmottari (I.9.6) also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India (Geog. Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206) Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India. e.g. :sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha: :— ''(Raajbilaas 1/122)''. The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living ''in southern division of India'' (''dakshina.path.vasinah'') e.g. :pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah: :carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah: :— ''(Garuda Purana 1/15/13)''. Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in Indian mainland.... ''Kambhoja'' in south-west India and ''Kamboja'' in southern parts of India (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305). The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish the historical fact that in wake of major events of second/first century BCE, some sections of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India. The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c AD). Due to the above literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Dr Aiyangar, Dr Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat. ''Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature. Some historians have also invested western ''Kshatrapas'', especially the ''Kshahrata Kshatrapas'' with Kamboja ethnicity (Ancient India, III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah) Interestingly, Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is very popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventuours king of Kambojas. It probably relates to some historical brush the Andhraites might have had with the intruding hordes of Kambojas/Pahlavas around Christian era. The Kamboja hordes of second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western india. The ''Kamb/Kambuh'' river and ''Kamboh/Kambo'' mountain in Sindh ( Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick) remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja. The ''Kamboi'' (ancient town/port), ''Kambhey'' (port) in Surashtra, ''Kumbhoj/Kambhoj'' (an ancient town) in Kohlapur in Maharashtra, and the ''Koimb-toor'' city of Caranatica in southern India carry unmistakeable footprints of the Kambojas. There is a ''Kambhoj'' caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra which probably is a dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas who had settled in SW India around Christian era. ===Kambojas in Bengal=== A third branch of these Central Asian Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards along the Himalayan foothills, hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet (Kam-po-ji/Kam-po-ce) and Nepal (Kambojadesa). Fifth century CE Brahma Purana (53/16) mentions Kambojas with Pragjyotisas and Tamraliptikas. Sasanavmsa (P.T.S., pp 64-65, 83 etc) also attests the Kambojas in/around Burma. They were probably a section of those Kambojas who figure in history of Bengal. They had made an unsuccessful bid to conquer Gauda during the reign of king Devapala. A latter attempt of Kambojas was crowned with success and they deprived the Palas of the suzerainty over Gauda and set up one of their chiefs as king (History of India, p 399, Dr V. A. Smith) Rajyapala, Narayanapala, Nayapala, Dharamapala and Gaudapati, also known as Kunjarghatavarshayan, are the known Kamboja kings who ruled in north-west Bengal. Kamboja rule in north-west Bengal is attested from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription as well as from Irda Tamrapatra found in Irda, District Balasor, Orissa, in 1931 (Edited/published by Dr N. G. Majumdar, 1934). Dinajpore Pillar inscription refers to a Kamboja king who is described as Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati.. i.e. the lord of Gauda born in a Kamboja family (Indian Antiquary, I, 1872, pp 127ff, 195ff, 227 ff; Journal of Royal Society of Bengal, II, 1911, pp 615-19). In the inscription, this Kamboja king is addressed as ''Kunjarghataversheyan'', which may be his nick-name. Irda-Tamrapatra inscription details generation after generation of kings belonging to Kamboja family. King Rajayapala, the founder father of Pala-Kamboja empire in Bengal specifically refers to himself as Kamboja.vamshatilaka.paramasaugata.maharajadhiraja.parameshvara.paramabhattaraka Rajyapala (Epi. Indica, XXII, 1933-34, pp 150-58) ''Jaganathaparkasha'' composed by Pandit Sura Misra in honor of Jagana Natha born in Kamboja family (''Kamboja.kulavatansah.shri.Jagananatha iti prasidhah'') refers to him as a famous king ruling in Bengal in 16th century (Notices of Sanskrit MSS, V, no 1790). ===Kambojas in Sri Lanka=== Inscriptional and Literary Evidence One section of north-western Kambojas appears to have reached Sri Lanka via Gujarat/Surastra, several centuries prior to Christian era, thus contributing to the colonization of that island and influencing the social, cultural and economical lives of its people. This is evident from six or seven ancient cave inscriptions found in Anuradhapura which strongly attest the existence of Kamboja Goshatha/Sangha (''Gote Kabojhiana''...Archaological Survey of Ceylon, Inscription Register No 316) and the Grand Kamboja Guild (''Kabojiya mahapughyana''.....op. cit. Inscription Register No 1118) in ancient Sinhala. These inscriptions are said to belong to third century BCE (Dr S. Paranavitana). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the ''fourth century'', also attests a group of people called the Kambojas in Rohana. The third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, reveals that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni. Sasanvamsa attests one Bhiksu Tamalinda thera, son of Kamboja, living in ancient Sinhala. It also attests a Kamboja king Srihamsyia, who came from Kamboja and took possession of Ratanapura in south-west Sinhala (Sasanavamsa, (P.T.S), p 40, 100; Some Kshatriya Tribes, p 249/50, Dr Law). The second most referenced ethnic group following the Aryan Kambojas in the ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura are the (Dravidian) Damedas or Tamils. Term Dameda occurs in four inscriptions. Term Mileka (Mlechcha) referring to the Aborigines of the island i.e the Veddas, occurs twice. Other three terms Muridi (=Murinda?), Meraya (Maurya?) and Jhavaka each occurs only once. ''It is noteworthy that there is no reference whatsoever, to name Sinhala in any of these ancient inscriptions''. The first ever reference to Sinhala is noted in 4th century Dipavamsa. This proves that the Sinhala identity for the majority Sinhlese speaking Aryan population had evolved much later, down the road. The above inscriptional and literary evidence shows that the Kamboja colonists from north-west had formed an important and pre-dominant section of ancient Sinhala society, perhaps from several centuries prior to Christian era. Therefore, they must have been the first Aryan colonists to have reached the island. The Sinhapura of Ancient Sinhalese Mahavamsa traditions reveal that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan population, had migrated from some Simhapura country located in India proper (Mahavamsa, 6/34). Mahabharata attests one ''Sinhapura'' principality located in north-west of India. This Sinhapura figures prominently in Arjuna's Digvijay of north-west countries. It is stated to be located contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara, in Kashmir). After the Sinhapura, the Epic makes reference to Bahlikas (Panjab? or Bacteria?), Daradas and Kambojas, thus showing that the Sinhapura of Mahabharata was located in the north-west adjacent to Kambojas and Daradas of Upper Indus (See: MBH 2/27/18-22) . Chetiya Jataka also locates one ''Simhapura'' in the west (Jataka III, p 275). Hiuen Tsiang, seventh century Chinese visitor also attests one ''Simhapura'' (Sang-ho-pu-lo) on east bank of river Indus about 115 miles east of Taxila, which localizes it in upper doab of Jhelum/Chenab (Ref: Hiuen Tsiang, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I. Trans. Samuel Beal, 1906, pp 142-150) Scholars have located this Sinhapura in upper Salt Range, north-west of Panjab (Struggle of Empire, p 33, Classical Age, p 132). Sinhala, as a personal name is also attested from two Kharoshthi inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Taksashila in ancient Gandhara (Kharoshthi Insc., pp 87, 110, Dr. Konow). The appellative terms ''Gamika'' (=Gamini=Gramini) and ''Parumaka'' (=Pramukha) and the corporational terms ''Puga'' (=Guild/Sangha) and ''Gote'' (=Goshati=corporation) etc have been used specifically in reference to Kambojas in the ancient inscriptions of Sinhala. As attested by Kautiliya's Arthashastra, these republican/corporational terms were applied to political, military and commercial Sanghas or Guilds of the Kambojas of Uttarapatha around 4th c BCE. Thus, this evidence suggests that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the ancestors of the ancient Sinhalas may have been from the Kambojan/Gandharan trade group. The 'shaved-headed tradition' about Vijay and his companions has been referred to in the Mahavamsa. This also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group. Archeological Finds The most famous and only known locale for lapis lazuli since ancient times was in Badakshan in north Afghanistan which has been mined for over 6000 years. The Badakshan province undoubtedly formed a part of ancient Kamboja as we have already proved above. Archeological finds of lapis lazuli (of Badakshan type) from Sri Lanka conclusively connect it to Badakshan in Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli. Numerous coins, beads and the intaglios belonging to Bacteria/ Afghanistan have also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Apart from lapis lazuli, coins and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Kamboja/Gandhara/Bacteria region are further revealed by other articles of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schist, (yet unpublished), was unearthed from the excavations at Jetavanarama in Anuradhapura. All these archeological finds conclusively establish a very close relationship between Sri Lanka and the north-west communities, especially, the Kambojans/Gandharans of Afghanistan/Central Asia. A Merchant Lineage In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a ''Sarthavaha'' is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are traveling in a caravan. It is likely that Vijay Simha, the ancestor of the Sinhalese was the earliest one such ''Sarthavaha'' from the ''Simhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara group in North-west India''. According to Mahavamsa traditions, Vijay and his 700 companions had landed in Sri Lanka in 543 (or 483?) BC, on the day of Buddha's heavenly departure. This may actually refer to Vijay's commercial visit to Sri Lanka for trade with the Daemedas/Tamils in Sinhala and then permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Daemeda/Tamil groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried on from the north-west following ancient Kamboja-Dvarka Caravan Route and then via the west-coast sea-route starting from Bharukachcha in Gujarat. The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of motis/gems and was known as Motimannar. The south-east coast was also known for its precious stones. The merchants from north-west Kamboja had an allurement for these specific products. It is also significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses (Vinaya Pitaka, III, 6; Játaka, Vol II, 287, Fausboll). Evidence exists that horse merchants from Kamboja were in active trade as far as Ceylone. This trade had been going on with eastern, western and southern India as late as medieval ages. King Devapala (810-850) of Bengal and King Vishnuvardhana Hoysala (1106 - 1152) of Mysore had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalry. Dr Don Martino observes: ''The traders from north-west Kamboja had been conducting trade in horses with Sri Lanka following west coast of India since remote antiquity'' (Epigraphia Zeylanka, Vol II, No 13, p 76). More evidence exists which point to closer links of north-west Kambojas/Gandharas with the ancient Sinhalese. ===Kambojas in Indo-China=== Some ambitious Kamboja families from Gujarat/Surashtra or those from Sri Lanka appear to have ventured into Indo-China around third or fourth century CE, originally as merchants/traders, later followed by some Kshatriya Kamboja chieftain. They managed to found a small Kamboja colony north of Funan, which later grew into powerful Kamboja empire under the Varman kings. ''If the European traders, located thousands of miles away could do it in eighteenth century in India, the Kamboja adventurers from Gujarat/Surastra or Sri Lanka could have done it in fifth century in nearby Indo-China too.'' The Kambojas as traders and as ethnic community were already flourishing in Sri Lanka at this time as is evident from the archeological evidence presented above. With one little step forward, they were in Indo-China. ''The ruling family of Varman kings of Cambodia proudly trace their lineage to the Kambojas or Kambojas''. King Kambu (Sanskrit Kamboj), the legendary patriarch of Kambuja (Kamboja) ruling family of Cambodia was, to all probability, a warrior/scholar Kamboja chieftain from Sinhala or else from Gujarat. The tradition among north-Indian Kambojas lends adequate credibility to this view. [[Image:Seihamuni.jpg|thumb|200px|Kamboj lineage: The current King of Cambodia, HM Norodom Sihamoni]] Several noted scholars like Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr P. C. Bagchi, Dr B. R. Chatterjee, J. Fergussan, Dr R. K. Mukerjee, Bombay Gezetteer, Dr J. L. Kamboj and several others have accepted a direct historical and political link between the Indian Kambojas and Cambodia . G. Coedes, an authority on ancient Cambodian history, has also accepted the probability of this connection (Indianized States of South-East Asia, 1964, p 47). One school of scholars including Dr V. A. Smith, Dr Joveau Dubreuil, Dr V. Venkayya, Dr B. L. Rice, G. Coedes etc is convinced that the Pallava rulers of Kanchi/Southern India were a section from the Iranian Pahlavas. The Pahlavas were a tribe closely allied to the Kambojas. Thus, some adventurous families from both the Pahlavas and the Kambojas who are attested to have settled in south-west India in post-Christian era (Ref: Brhat Samhita (14/17)) may indeed have founded the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi and the Kambojas dynasty of Cambodia respectively. ==Modern Kamboj and Kamboh== Kamboj/Kamboh diaspora The Kamboj or Kamboh living in upper India (Greater Panjab) are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Buddhists and the Jains. The Tajiks, Siyaposh tribe (Kam/Kamoz, Katir/Kamtoz) of Nuristan, Yashkuns and the Yusufzais of Eastern Afghanistan and NWFP of Pakistan are said by various scholars to have descended from the ancient Kambojas. The Kamboj are also found in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Ganganagar in Rajasthan. A minuscule agrarian community called Kambhoj is living in Maharashtra which probably has descended from those Kambojas who had settled in South-West India around Christian era. Kamboj/Kamboh traditions The Kambohs are stated to be the ancient inhabitants of Iran (Denzil Ibbetson, H. A. Rose, S. S. Gill, Chaudhri Wahhab Ud-Din). The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala & Jullundur (Panjab) claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradtion that their ancestors came from Kashmir. Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan. The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true. The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from ''Garh-Gazni'' (Afghanistan). Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the ''phera'' during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home: :''Garh Gazni Nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas''. :Translation: Originated from the fort of Gazni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (Panjab). Muslim Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient ''Kai'' dynasty of Persian Empire, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Panjab (H. A. Rose, A. H. Bingley, H. M. Elliot, Dr G. S. Mansukhani, R. C. Dogra, etc). Kamboj/Kamboh during Muslim Rule Muslim Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. General Shahbaz Khan was the most trusted general of Akbar. Sheikh Gadai was the Sadar-i-Jahan in Akbar's reign (Akbar Nama, Abu-L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122). The Sayyids and the Kambohs from among the Indian Muslims were ''specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule'' (The composition of the Mughal nobility, Encyclopedia Britannica Online; The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali). The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position (H. A. Rose; D. Ibbetson). Kamboj/Kamboh as Agriculturists The modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago as powerfully attested by Arthashastra (11/1/04) and Brhat Samhita (5/35). Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India. Britsh colonial writers like Rose and Denzil note the Kamboj and Ahir agriculturists as the first rank husbandmen and they rate them above the Jats (Panjab Castes, 1974, p 149, D. Ibbetson; Glossary, II, pp 6, 442, H. A. Rose). Col Lal Singh Kamboj, landlord from Uttar Pradesh, was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam Shri award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists (Origin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004, Principal Sewa Singh). According to Dr M. S. Randhawa (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Agri. Univ. Ludhiana, Panjab), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity (Out of Ashes, p 60). Physical Charactersitics of Kamboj/Kamboh Several foreign observers have described the modern Kambojs as very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race (Bingley, Rose) . Some British ethnologists have described the Kambohs to be ethnically more akin to the Afghans than any of the Hindu races among which they have now settled for generations [The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57). There is a medieval era Persian proverb current in north-west which conveys that the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues . :Agar kuht-ul-riajl uftad, azeshan uns kam geeri, :Eke Afghan, doum Kamboh, seum badzat Kashmiri'. :— ''(Persian proverb)'' This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris had been living pretty much as neighbors and were one inter-related racial group. 'During reign of terror in India (18th/19th centurry), it was the Kambohs (Kamboj) only who were most trusted by the rich bankers for carrying their cash in the disguise of faqirs' (Quoted in: Glossary of Tribes, p 444; Panjab Castes, p 149; cf: Census Report of India, 1880). The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting. They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible strategy of war (The Sikhs and the Wars: Reginald Holder: (From Panjab: Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, 1970, S. No 7, Ed Dr Ganda Singh)) The modern Kamboj are generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, generally very fair (gaura varna) race having brown, some times redish hair, and brown or sometimes gray eye color and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are noted for their beauty. In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as very handsome race (MBH 7/23/43). Ancient Kamboj princes have also been noted as tall (MBH 8/56/113), exceedingly handsome (MBH, 7/92/74, 8/56/113), of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like full moon (MBH 8/56/113), lotus eyed (MBH 8/56/113), handsome like the lord-moon among the stars (MBH 1/67/31). Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas as 'ravisanibha' i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun (Ramayana 1/55/2). Ancient Kamboja ladies were also noted for their beauty (Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; MBH 11/25/1-8) Kamboj in Sports The Kamboj have made outstanding contributions in wrestling, hockey, and Kabaddi. Jodh Singh, Natha Singh, Hazara Singh, Santa Kharasia, Bakshisha, Chhiba, Khushal, Chanan, Maula Bakhsh etc are the few foremost Panjabi Kamboj wrestlers of yester-years who had earned great name and fame in wrestling. Olympian Prithipal was probably the greatest hockey full-back of the 20th century. Known as King of short-corner and the Mahabahu of Indian hockey, Prithi was the first Indian to win the Arjuna Award, and later Padam Shri Award in hockey. Rasool Akhtar, President of Pakistan Hockey Federation, is one of the greatest hockey Olympians from Pakistan. A fifteen year old Chandita is the most brilliant emerging roller hockey player of India. Rattan Singh alias Rattu has been the greatest defender in freestyle Kabaddi. General The total population of this people, still calling themselves as Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) or Kambhoj is estimated to be around 1.5 million, rest of their population, over the time, having submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the subcontinent. The Kambohs, by tradition, are divided into 52 and 84 clans. 52 line section is stated to be descendants of Cadet branch and 84 from the elder Branch. This is claimed as referring to the young and elder military divisions under which they had fought the Bharata war. Numerous of their clan names overlap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west must have descended from the Ancient Kambojas.(cf: Glossary, II, p 444, fn. iii). The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue( Jat Tribes of Zira, p 138; Glossary , II, p 444) Indo-European
Kambojas
== Handling citations == As I try to clean up this article, the one thing I am not sure how to handle is the numerous citations. They are sprinkled in within the overall narrative which makes it very difficult to read. Does anyone have a good example of how to do format this best? Also, there doesn't seem to be an accepted style to present a sanskrit shloka, so I have adapted a style I have found elsewhere and expanded on it. Please comment. Finally, I may have actually found an error in the first shloka I tried to style. The text of the article states that it is from the Mahabharata, book 12 (Shantiparva) page 207, verses 43 and 44. However, based on http://www.hindunet.org/mahabharata/txt/12.txt, the actual reference seems to be page 200, verses 40 and 41. I have changed the citation accordingly. Would anyone confirm that this is correct please? User:SpikedZebra 00:23, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC) **Thanks SpikedZebra Actually, there is no error. The verse number (MBH 12/207/43-44) which you are refereing to I have based it on the Gorakhpore edition of Mahabhara. You have changed it in accordance with online Critical Edition of Mahabharata. To be noted here that there are some discrepancies and differences between Gorakhpore Mahabharata and the online Critical edition. I have mostly relied on verse-references from the Gorakhpore edition. KLS P.S. I'm also thankful to Bluemoose for sectionalizing the article. ==KAMBOJA SRI-LANKA CONNECTIONS== SOME INSCRIPTIONAL REFERENCES TO ANCIENT KAMBOJAS IN ANCIENT SRI LANKA....THE MOST RERENCED ETHNIC COMMUNITY IN THE INSCRIPTIONS [1] no. 622: 'Gamika-Kabojhaha lene' The cave of the village-councillor Kamboja; Paranavitana, 1970: [2] no. 623: 'Gamika-Siaa-putra gamika-Kabojhaha lene' The cave of the village-councillor Kamboja, son of the village-councillor Siva' Paranavitana, 1970: [3] (no. 625) (1) 'Cam ika-Siua-putra gamika-Kambojhaha jhitaya upasika-Sumanaya lene.' The cave of the female laydevotee Sumana, daughter of the village-councillor Kamboja. Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [4](no 625) (2) 'gamika Kabojhaha ca sava-satasoyesamage pati' The cave of the son of the village-councillor Siva. May there be the attainment of the Path of Beatitude for the village-councillor Kamboja and for all beings. 75 J. Bloch, 0950: 103, 130), ... Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [5](no. 553): 'Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana Manapadaiane agataanagat-catu-disa-agaia' [The cave] Manapadassana of the members of the Great Corporations of Kambojiyas, [is dedicated] to the Saiügha of the four quarters, present and absent. Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [6] (no. 990): 'Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na parumaka-Gopalaha bariya upasika-Citaya lepe iagaio' The cave of the female lay-devotee Citta, wife of Gopala, the chief of the incorporated Kambojiyas, [is dedicated] to the Saiügha. Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970 [7] Mediaval age inscription, refering a KAMBOJA VASSALA (i.e Kamboja Dawara/or Kamboja gate) found from Polonnaruva near Vishnu temple. Discovered in 1887 by S. M. Burros. (Ref: Journal of Ceylone B Branch of Royal Asiatic Society., Vol X., X No 34, 1887, pp64-67). [8] Mediaval age inscription (1187-1193 AD), found from Ruvanveli Dagba, Anaradhapura in Sri Lanka. It refers to Kambojdin people, which is modified version of Kamboja. (Ref: Don Martino de Zilva Wickeremsinghe, Epigraphicia Zeylanka, Vol II., Part I & II., p 70-83; Rhys David, J.R.A.S. Vol VII., p 187, p 353f; Muller. E. AIC., No 145; J.R.A.S., Vol XV., 1914, pp 170-71). See below the wording of this inscription written in Sinhali belended with Sanskrit. 'Nuvarata hatapsina sata gavaka pamanah tana haam satuna no narye hakhye abhaya di ber lava dolos meh va tana masuta abhaya de Kambojdin ran pili aadibhu kamati vastu de paksheen no badan niyayen samata kota abhaya dee' See original text in the reference quoted below or in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 354, Dr J. L. Kamboj). (Epigraphia Zeylanka Vol II., p 80). THE GRAMANIS OF THE WEST-INDUS MAY HAVE BEEN THE ANCESTORS OF MAJORITY OF SINHALESE POPULATION. Not only the Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka refer to the guilds/Sanghas/corporations (Puka/Pugas, Gote/Goshata) among Sri Lankan Kambojas but also they refewre to their republican titles like Gamika (=Gamini=Gramani) and Paramaka (Parmuka/Parmukha i.e chief of the Sanghas). The Gramani as a royal title is not referred to in ancient Sanskrit literature. However, Gramani as a Puga/Sangha term is referred to in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. Also MBH makes references to Gramani people/Sangha located in west of river Indus. One Gramani group had organised themselves into a Puga (Sangha) and are referenced to have been living on west of Indus, first in Upper Indus and then the lower Indus, from where they appear to have moved to Gujarat/Surashtra and then finally some section of them onto Sri Lanka. The ethnic connections of these republican Gramaney people are not mentioned anywhere. Mahabharata refers to the fight of Nakula with these powerful Gramanis living on the banks of lower Indus in western India. :Sanskrit: ::gananutsava sanketanvyajayatpurusharshabha . ::sindhukulashrita ye cha gramaneya mahabalah .//8. ::— ''(MBH 2/32/9)'' The corrupted form of this ''Gramani'' of Indus is the Gamini or Gamika of the Brahami inscriptions abundantly found in Anuradhapura and some other locations in Sri Lanka. Surprisingly, though not a royal title in India proper, the Gamani as a royal title (for king/raja) has been profusely used by ancient kings of Sinhala. The Gamini as a title/appellation was mostly applied to heads of trade guilds/corporations/Sanghas and also some-times to political Sanghas/Pugas in north-west as is the case of Lower Indus Gramanis of MBH. It appears likely that the ancestors of Sinhala either belonged to the above Republican Graminis or else they may have been closely connected with them (History of Ceylone, Vol I, Part I, p 91, Dr S Parnavitana; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 349-353, Dr Kamboj). All circumstantial evidence therefore indicates that the Gramanis of Mahabharata and of Panini's reference had moved from upper west Indus to lower Indus and then probably to Gujarat and finally, one section of them may have made it to Sri Lanka. The existence of ancient well known Kamboja Dravati Caravan Route implies that the trader groups from Kamboja were familiar with ancient regions of Sindhu, Sovira, Surashtra and further the western Indian coastal areas as far as Sri Lanka. (see Kamboja-Dvarka ancient trade Route and the Kambojas) Mahavamsa (6/34) states that ancestors of the Sinhalese came from Sinhala-kalpa or Sinhapura in Lata desha. '''Also there is mention that Vijay's father had left his maternal grand-father's country (Sinhapura) and had founded a new colony in Lata-rattha (=Lata Rashtra). We have already seen one Sinhapura located contiguous to Ursa/Hazara west of Jammu/Kashmir''' i.e near the ancient land of Kambojas/Gandharas. The Gramanis refered to in MBH who are said to be living on Indus thus may well fit Vijay's migrant clan as refered to in Mahavamsa. Vijay's father may have moved from Upper Indus to lower Indus i.e in Lata-Desha/Surashtra, where a reference to Gramanis is also made in MBH. There is one Sinhore located in Kathiawada. In the Gift records of king Valbhi, this Sinhore has also been referred to as Sinhapura (Epigraphia Indica, XVII, p 110; also see Dr J. L. Kamboj). It is thus perfectly conceivable that the migrant clan of the Gramanis (probably same as that of Vijay's father) may have founded this town in Kathiawada/Surashtra several centuries prior to Christian era and may have named it also as ''Sinhapura'' in memory of their Sinhapura of Upper Indus. It is stated that Vijay and his 700 companions had started off their sea vovage to Sri Lanka from Sinhapura in Lata-Desha and caravan is stated to have passed through Bharukachcha and Soparka sea ports located on west coast of India. Thus this discussion may imply connections of Gramanis of lower Indus with Sinhapura of Upper Indus (neighbor to Kashmir/Hazara) as well as with the clan of Vijay Sinha's, the ancestor of Sinhalese. Mahavamsa (6th c AD creation) states that the ancestors of Sinhalese i.e Vijay Simha was a prince, but Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka rather allude to earlier Sinhalese settlers most likely as coming from some trader's group. Thus, Vijay Sinha's being a chief/leader/Sarthavaha of some carvan of the merchants/traders from north-west in the remote past is more likely a possibility. The group led by Vijay Sinha may have visited the island for purpose of trade but may have finally settled in the island and become its permanent residents. These Anuradhapura inscriptions profusely refer to Gramani (Gamini, Gamini/Gamika) as a chief of trader's guild. In Pali texts, the tiltle appears as Sarthavaha. The Pramaka (Parmukha, Chief) used for the head of guild/corporations in these Brahmi inscriptions also points in the same direction. All these terms (Gamika/Gamini/Gramani, Gote, Puga, Gote/Goshat etc) are pure republican in character and belong to north-west. And most interestingly, they are found to have been prevalent among ancient Kambojas groups (MBH, Kautiliya, Panini evidence). Thus, one can easily conceive that Vijay's clan may have been the same as that of the republic Gramaneys of lower Indus as referred to in MBH. And further, this Gramani clan had migrated from upper Indus to lower Indus, then to Surashtra/Kathiawada and finally a section of them had landed in Sinhala. And further, this clan may have been an offshoot from the Gandharan/Kambojan ethnic group...the former inhabitants of Sinhapura of Upper Indus. This is because the ancient Sinhalese inscriptions make numerous references to the Kambojas from north-west. No other ethnic group from North-west or north-east has been referred. The Meryas (=Mauryas..mentioned ''only once'' in the inscriptions) may have been migrants from Meros (of Arrian) ....the modern Koh-i-Mor of Swat/Kunar region. There is absoluterly no reference to Anga, Kalinga, Vanga, Gandhara or any other Aryan group of north-east or north-west India nor there is any reference to name Sinhala itself in these numerous inscriptions. The Milekas of the Sinhalese inscriptions (referenced twice) were the aborigines (Veddas). The other dominant group was the Daemedas (Tamilians) from Dravidian group from Southern India who find mention in three Inscriptions. Mahavamsa was composed in 6th c AD, about 800-900 years from the date of these Inscriptions. Undoubtedly, Mahavamsa represents later conditions of Sinhala island when population from north-east India (second and later stream) had also come and settled in the Island. Unlike ancient cave inscriptions, Mahavamsa does make references to Anga, Vanga, Kalinga. But this is later phenomenon. And being literary traditions, the Mahavamsa may have been interpolated/re-written to reflect the later historical/political realities of the island. The absence of the name Anga, Kalinga, Vanga etc in these ancient inscriptions shows that there was as yet no population from the north-east India and north-easterners had only joined the north-west Aryan speaking group much later in time. Thus the original stream of migrants, the so-called ancestors of the Sinhalese population, to Sinhala island were indeed from north-west and to all probability, they were from the Kambojan republican ethnic group. The 'shaved-headed tradition' referred to in Mahavamsa about Vijay and his companions also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group. There are numerous other reasons which also point to north-west being the home of ancient Sinhalas. ==KAMBOJAS IN SRI LANKA: OPINIONS FROM SOME SCHOLARS== ===Kamalika Pieris=== Osmund Bopearachchi points out that here is epigraphical evidence to indicate that Sri Lanka had a closer relationship with the regions of Afghanistan. The word 'Kaboja' occurs in three* inscriptions from Koravakgala (Situlpauva) in the Hambantota district, which was a part of the ancient Rohana. The Kambojas were a native population in the west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin. In addition this site also produced coins from Bactria and North west India. There were also finds of lapis lazuli which were probably from Afghanistan. These indicate a close relationship between Sri Lanka and the communities of Central Asia and Northwest India. For this reason it is believed that the Gandhara (and Kamboja) region was closely connected with Sri Lanka as early as the first centuries of our era. (Observations made at the International seminar on early Buddhist art of Central Asia, Gandhara, India and Sri Lanka, Colombo, 1998)” [By Kamalika Pieris] *Note: As we have seen above, there are 6 or 7 inscrptions in Anuradhapura referencing the Kambojas. ===David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes=== ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ON SHIPPING COMMUNITIES page 108/109 " The second category of beads which deserves attention, is those made from lapis lazuli, becamee the only known source for this material in antiquity was Badakhshan (in northern Afghanwestan). The author of the Periplus mentions lapis lazuli among the products exported from Barbaricum.72 This precious material doubtless travelled along the sea route to reach the southern coast of Sri Lanka. Hema Ratnayake (1993: 8Q.) has also observed that on a painted slab belonging to one of the frontispieces of the Jetavana stupa, there are traces of lapis lazuli underneath the line of geese. He dates it to the third century AD, to the reign of king Mahasena, who built this feature of the stupa. The intaglio depicting a seated wild boar, unearthed along with carnelian seals and beads from Akurugoda (Tissamaharama) on the southern coast of the island, is important in this context. . This type of wild boar is known on Sasanian intaglios.73 The presence of lapis lazuli on the southern coast of Sri Lanka cannot be an isolated event, because epigraphical evidence bears witness to the fact that this area had close relationships with the regions of Afghanistan. 'Kaboja' occurs as a proper name in three inscriptions from Koravakgala (Situlpavua) in the Hambantota District, on the southeastern part of the island, in ancient Rohana.74 S. Paranavitana (1970: xc) believed that the Kabojha, Kabojhiya and Kabojhika are to be connected with the ethnic name Kamboja, which occurrs in Sanskrit and Pali literature as well as in the Vth and Xlllth inscriptions of Asoka, Kabojhiya being equivalent to the derivative term Kambojiya and Kabojika to Kambojika.75 The Brahmi inscription from Bovattegala on the southern border of the Ampari District, a few miles from the northeast limit of the Hambantota District, also in ancient Rohana, refers to 'Kabojhiya-mahapugyiana' i.e.'those who were members of the great corporation of the 'Kabojhivas'.76 The Brahmi inscription from Kaduruvava in the Kurunagala District, to the southwest of Anuradhapura, mentions a parumaka (Chief) of the Gota-Kabojikana, i.e. of the corporation of the Kabojikas.77 These inscriptions indicate that the Kambojas had organised themselves into a corporations and were certainly engaged in trade. The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the fourth century (on page 109) attests that a group of people called the Kambojas were in Rohana. In the third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, we are informed that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni.78 The Kambojas are often mentioned together with Yonas (Yavanas), Gandharas and Sakas. The Kambojas were a native population of Arachosia in the extreme west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin.79 The finds on the southern coast of the island of lapis lazuli from northern Afghanistan and various coins of Soter Megas, Kanishka II, Vasudeva II and posthumous Hermaios, all from Bactria and Northwest India, and the references to the Kambojas of Arachosia, compel us to believe that there were close relationships between Sri Lanka and the communities of Central Asia and North-West India. S. Paranavitana (1970: xci) did not exclude the possibility of the presence of Sakas in the island. His starting point was the inscription in Brahmi script, known as Anuradhapura Rock Ridge West of Lainkarama,so which refers to 'The flight of steps of Uttara, the Murundiya (Muridi-Utaraha seni). Since the epithet 'Muridi' is prefixed to the name '-Utara' (Skt. Uttara), S. Paranavitana believed that Muridi is a derivative of Muruda, which is the same as Murunda in the compound Saka-Murunda that occurs in the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta. S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued,S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued, that murunda is almost certainly a Saka word meaning 'master', 'lord', and he argued that the word murunda has become synonymome with Saka, when applied to royalty. Apart from the coins, beads and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Gandhara region are revealed by other pieces of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schisst, still unpublished, was unearthed from the excavations at at Jetavanarama. Most of the identified 'Hellenistic' and Greek-influenced pottery from the citadel of Anuradhapura, and from our recent excavations at Kelaniya appears to be from the Greek East, in other words, somewhere in Northwest India or Bactria.8' ..." Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, [by David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes] ===Himanshu Prabha=== THE MERCHANT LINEAGE AND THE GUILD Page 194: Sri Lanka also provides evidence for niyama or nigama. The Tonigala rock inscription from the Anuradhapura district dated to the third year of the King Srimeghavarna (303-27 CE) records the grant of grain to the Kalahumanakaniyamatana (nigama-sthana), with the stipulation that only the interest is to be used for the maintenance of the monks (Epigraphia Zeylanica III, 1933: 172-98). Another later Brahmi inscription from Labuatabandigala refers to money, i.e. 100 káhápanas being deposited with the Mahatabaka niyama (247-53). Other terms used for guilds are puka or púga and goti (Sanskrit gosthi), the former often being used in association with either a village (Paranavitana 1970, nos. 135, 138; Dias 1991: no. 5) or community, such as that of the Kambojas (Paranavitana 1970, no. 553). There are references to the chief (jete) and sub-chief (anu- jete) of Sidaviya-puka (no. 1198). Literary texts further corroborate these distinctions, for example those between a general trader (vanik) and the setthi, who was possibly a financier, as opposed to the sárthaváha or caravan leader who transported either his own goods or those of other merchants. The sep thi in the Játakas was a man of immense wealth and hence constantly in the retinue of the king. References to rice fields owned by setthis imply that they were both traders and landowners . . Panini refers to traders as vanik (Astádhyáyi, 111.3.52) and makes a distinction between the krayavikrayika (whose main occupation was buying and selling, IV.4.13), the vasnika (who invested his money in business, IV.4.13), the sarnsthanika (a member of a guild, IV.4.72) and the dravyaka (a trader on the outward journey carrying merchandise for sale, Agrawala 1953: 238). In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a sárthaváha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are travelling in a caravan. There are several alternative arrangements described in the Játakas by which merchants could purchase or obtain goods. When a ship arrived in a port, merchants converged there to buy the goods and often had to pay money in advance to secure a share in the cargo (Book I: no. 4). Alternatively, a merchant could procure goods by mutual agreement with another living along the border . Once, the Boddhisattva was a wealthy merchant in Varanasi and had as a correspondent a border merchant whom he had never seen. There came a time when this merchant loaded 500 carts with local produce and gave orders to the men in charge to go to the Boddhisattva and barter the wares in his.. Page: 205/206. FOREIGNERS AND TRADE NETWORKS The complexity of economic transactions in the ancient period makes it difficult to determine ethnic identities of trading groups. Another problem is the ambiguity of the literary sources and their inability to distinguish between different ethnic identities, as in the case of allusions to Romans, Arabs, Indians and Ethiopians in Greek and Latin accounts. From the first century BCE to the second century CE, while many of the Arabs of the eastern Mediterranean regions were Roman subjects or Roman citizens, others lived beyond the frontiers of the empire and included groups such as Nabataeans, Palmyrenes, Sabaeans and so on. Early Brahmi inscriptions from Sri Lanka refer to two foreign groups involved in trading activity, i.e. the Damila (Sanskrit Dravida) and the Kabojha (Sanskrit Kamboja). The former figure in an important inscription engraved on the vertical rock face to the north-west of the Abhayagiri monastic complex at Anuradhapura. The inscription records that the terrace belonged to Tamil householders (gahapatikana). The floor of the terrace is on different levels, and the names of the owners are engraved on the rock face below their portion of it, e.g. dameda-samana, dameda-gahapati and navika or mariner. Two other inscriptions refer to a Tamil merchant named Visaka and a householder (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 94, 356, 357). These records are further corroborated by references in the Mahávarimsa, which term the damilas 'assandvikas' or those who brought horses in watercraft (chapter XXI, verses 10-12). It is significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses. The inscriptions referring to the Kabojha or Kambojas are found in ancient Rohana and associate the region with the gamika or village functionary (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 622, 623, 625), there are references to the guild of the Kabojhiyas and its chief (Kabojhiya-maha-pugiyana, no. 553; parumaka or chief of the gota (Sanskrit gostha) Kabojikana, no. 990). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of the fourth century, refers to a village of the Kambojas in Rohana. Wheeler identified so-called 'foreign pottery' during his excavations at the site of Arikamedu on the east coast of India (figure 8.5). He used these ceramic finds to endorse not only the nature of trade, i.e., ., Roman, but also the ethnicity of the users and hence suggested an Indo-Roman trading station at the site (Wheeler et al. 1946). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia [Cambridge World Archaeology], 2003, [by Himanshu Prabha Ray] [The above refernces are quoted here with due gratitude]. KLS ==ON MATHURA KAMBOJA LINKS== There is a full size sculputure in Mathura Museum called Kambojaka. Scholar identify it with Aiyasi Kamuia, the chief queen of Kshatrapa Rajuvula of Mathura. (The catalogue of the Sculpultures of the Archaological Museum, Mathura, F. 42J. P. Vogel; cf: Female Images in the Muesums of U.P., and their social Background., p 122, Padama Upadhyaya; India in Kala Dasa, p 200, B. S. Upadhyaya; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 215, 228, 306-09; Dr J. L. Kamboj). Thus Kamuia has been identified with Kambojaka/Kambojika. To be Noted that the standard Sanskrit Kamboja is also found written as Kambojaka in Pali and Kaamboja and Kambuja in Sanskrit literature. (e.g. Kambojake assastare sudante; ete hi dhama araryrupa Kambojakanam vitatha bahunam (Pali); Dakshintai Kambujanam Vashistanam (Sanskrit) etc). See further reference below: Sculptures of Mathura and Sarnath, 'The Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city, housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharosthi character, referring that Ayasi Kamuiá (Kambojika) the chief queen of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula established the relic of Lord Sakyamuni, a stupa and a Sangharama for the order of the four quarters of the Sarvástivádins.48 The record ends with obeisance to all the Buddha, the law, the order and the ~akastána. Thus, this pillar furnishes useful information for the study of Buddhist Church at Mathura" (Sculptures of Mathura and Sarnath, 2002, page 35, Usha Rani Tiwari.) It is notable that Aiyasi Kamuia (Lion Capitol Inscription A) was daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaosta Kamuia (Lion Capitol Inscription E) according Dr Stein Konow and his line of scholars. Yuvaraja Kharaosta is unanimously identified as Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been studied and examined by Rapson and Luders. According to Kharaosta's own coins, he was son of Arta or Orata. Arta is said to be elder brother of king Moga. Since queen Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Kharoshtha) both bear Kamuia as last name in the Lion Capitol Inscriptions, hence scholars have concluded that Arta and Moga were also Kamuia. Making use of science of linguistics, the scholars like Dr S Konow have identified the last name Kamuia with as the Kharoshtised version of Prikritic Kambojaka or Sanskrit Kamboja/Kambuja or Kambujia (cf: O.P Kambujiya). (Linguistic transformation possibilities: In the Mathura Capitol Kharoshthi inscriptions, 'u'. is used for common 'o' as the usual personal name ''Sodas'' is found wriiten as ''Sudas'' in the Mathura Capitol Inscriptions. Also in Khroshthi, 'mb' becomes 'mm' or 'm' as in Dhammapada.... Also the hard 'j' becomes soft 'y' as the Kamboja is also found written as Kamboya in Shahbazgarhi inscriptions of king Ashoka: Hence Kamboja/Kambuja => Kamboya/Kambuya => Kaboia/Kambuia => Kamoia/Kamuia. Similarily, using rigorous linguistics, the Kambojaka => Kamuia, as Dr S. Konow has shown...see Corpus Inscritionum Indicarum (CII), Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi; also see p 36, Dr S Konow). See References: (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, part I, p xxxvi; p 36; see also: Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research society, Vol XVI, 1930, parts III, IV, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 1956, p 220-21, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; cf Comprehensive History of India, 1957, Vol II, p 270, Dr K. A. Nilkantha Shastri; ; op cit, Dr Buddha Parkash, p 154; For detailed discussion, see Ancient Kamboja People & Country, 1981 pp 41, 42, 306-309, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc). King Moga is often connected with Saka clan which is said to have migrated from Issykkul or Tien-shan (Saka country?) in southern direction, passed through Pamirs/Hsuan-tu or hanging pass and settled in Kipin. It is worth noticing that the clan name Kamuia has not been attested amongst the Scythians in any of the ancient sources. Its closest equivalent is Kamboja/Kamboya/Kambu/Kamu. The surname Kamuia obviously points to Sanskirit/Pali Kamboja/Kambuja ir Old Persian Kambujiya. It is obvious that due to time and space proximity, the Trans-Oxian Kambojas, the next door neighbors to Issykkul Sakas had also become somewhat 'Scythianised' in culture by osmotic process if not otherwise, in the centuries preceeding Christian era. The so-called Sai or (Saka) clan which is stated to have settled in Kipin (Kashmir(?) or Kapisha(?)) per Chinese sources, may have actually been the Scythianised section of the Trans-Pamirian Kambojas who had been living off northern-eastern Pamirs or western-Sinkiang province of China and who may also have also joined the Sakas in their southward movements under similar pressures from Yueh-chihs. The Galcha Sri-Qoli as a dialect of ancient Kamboja is attested in western Sinkiang, around river Yarkand, attesting that it may have been a part of ancient Kamboja. Kamuia clan of Moga may have belonged to this section of the Kamboja settlement. That may have been the reason as to why the the Kambojas have some-times been confused with the Sakas. Also, one section of the Kambojas is confused with the Yueh-chihs too. The Kambojas who had lived as neighbors to the Kushans/Yueh-chihs, north of Oxus country (former Parama-Kamboja) had also later migrated to cis-Hindukush region in 2nd/1st c BC along with Kushans/Tukharas and thus some writers like Cunnigham have thought that the Kaofu clan (the Kambu=Kamboja) were a clan of the Yueh-chihs which is not correct. Cunnigham writes: ''....Kaofu was the appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yueh-chih or Tochari, who are said to have given their name to the town (Kabol) which they occupied, towards the end of second century before Christ'' (The Ancient Geography of India, p 15, Col A. Connigham). On the other hand, noted scholars like J.W. McCrindle and many others claim that Kamboja (=Afghanistan) was the Kaofu (Kambu) as mentioned later by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang in his travels. [Ref: J. W. McCrndle, Alexander's Invasions, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 235, Dr B. C. Law; cf: Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, pp 254-255, Dr Buddha Parkash; Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 1943, p 280, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People andthe Country, p 43118, Dr Kamboj etc etc] It also notable that the name Kabol or Kubha (Kophese/Kophen of Greeks) is attested since Vedic times, so this name was not given to this town by the ''Kaofu tribe'' as Cunnigham writes. Thus Cunnigham 's observations on Kaofu tribe as being a Tochari tribe are wrong. The name Kaofu in fact referred to Kambu or Kambuja or Kamboja. In the wake of political turmoils of second/1ist c BC, a section of the Trans-Pamirian Kambojas along with Yueh-chih clans had also crossed Hindukush and settled in the cis-Hindukush region. Hence the Kaofu clan (of the Kambojas) has erroneously been considered a clan of the Yuehchis by Cunnigham. Thus we can see that besides Sakas, the Kamboja clans are sometimes confused with the Kushans/Yueh-chihs also. This is because the Rshikas(Tukharas/Yueh-chihs) and Kambojas have been very close neighbors accross the Oxus as the MBH powerfully attests for us. Arjuna had to fight a fierce battle first with the Kambojas and Daradas in the cis-Hindukush region (Rajori/Swat valley) and after this, with the allied forces of Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and the Rshikas north of Pamir-Badakshan/Tran-Oxian region. :Sanskrit: ::daradAnsaha kAmbojairajayatpAkashAsaniH .. 22..\\ ::prAguttarA.n disha.n ye cha vasantyAshritya dasyavaH . ::nivasanti vane ye cha tAnsarvAnajayatprabhuH .. 23..\\ ::lohAn.PparamakAmbojAn.RShikAn.uttarAnapi . ::sahitA.nstAnmahArAja vyajayatpAkashAsaniH .. 24 ::— ''(MBH 2/27/23-25)'' Writing on political situation in Central Asia created as a result of Hunic pressure on Yueh-chihs and Yueh-Chih pressure in turn on the Sakas of Issykkul etc during second c BC, Dr. D Devhuti observes as follows: :These pressures brought all these tribes from central Asia...-sometimes very indistinguishable from each other-to north-western India around the beginning of the Christian era.[India's Interaction With China, Central and West Asia (Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy & Culture, Volume 3 Part 2) , Philosophy, and Culture Project of History of Indian Science, 80-81, (Dr D. Devhuti)] Also, as it has also been noted by numerous scholars, ''due to intensive cultural admixrture in second and first century before Christ, the social customs, manners, dresses and language of the Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Pahavss etc had become identical. Therefore, it is sometimes very difficult to differentiate one clan/tribe apart from the others'' [Ref: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 308, Dr Kamboj; cf India's Interaction With China, Central and West Asia ( op cit., pp 80-81, Dr D. Devhuti; cf: Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 256-257, Dr Sircar] KLS KAMBOJAS, SAKAS AND YAVANAS IN THE HEARTLAND OF INDIA, INCLUDING MATHURA: Scholars have noted that the ancient sources and Sanskrit literarture composed around Christain Era and after do not very carefully differentiate the Kambojas from Yavansas or the Kambojas from the Sakas, or the Sakas from the Pahlavas and vice versa. Example 1: Sakas counted among the Kambojas: In Kabol area, Ashoka's Rock Edicts only attest Yavanas, Kambojas and Gandharas. Undoubtedly, there was also s