Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar (Latin: IMP�C�IVLIVS�CAESAR�DIVVS#Notes) (b. July 13, c.100 BC d. March 15, 44 BC) was a Ancient Rome military and political leader. He was instrumental in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. In 55BC Caesar launched the first Roman invasion of Britain, and his conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, introducing Roman influence into what has become modern France, an accomplishment whose direct consequences are visible to this day. Caesar fought and won a civil war which left him undisputed master of the Roman world, and began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He was proclaimed Roman dictator for life, and heavily centralized the already faltering government of the weak republic. Caesar's friend Marcus Brutus conspired with others to assasinate Caesar in hopes of saving the Republic. The dramatic assassination on the Ides of March was the catalyst for a second set of civil wars, which marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire under Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted son, Caesar Augustus. Caesar's military campaigns are known in detail from his own written Literary works of Julius Caesar, and many details of his life are recorded by later historians such as Suetonius, Plutarch, and Dio Cassius. ==Early Life== Caesar was born in Rome to a well-known patrician family (''gens'' Julius), which supposedly traced its ancestry to Julus, the son of the Troy prince Aeneas, who according to myth was the son of Venus (goddess). Caesar was raised in the Subura, a lower-class neighborhood of Rome, where he apparently learned to speak several languages, including Hebrew language and Gaul dialects. The Julii Caesares, although of impeccable aristocratic patrician stock, were not rich by the standards of the Roman nobility. Thus, no member of his family had achieved any outstanding prominence in recent times, though in his father's generation there was a renaissance of their fortunes. His paternal aunt, Julia Caesaris, married Gaius Marius, a talented general and reformer of the Roman army. Marius became one of the richest men in Rome at the time and while he gained political clout, the Caesar family gained the wealth. Towards the end of Marius' life in 86 BC, internal politics reached a breaking point. Several disputes of the Marius faction against Lucius Cornelius Sulla led to civil war and eventually opened the way to Sulla's dictatorship. Caesar was tied to the Marius party through family connections. Not only was he Marius' nephew, he was also married to Cornelia Cinnilla, the youngest daughter of Cinna, Marius' greatest supporter and Sulla's enemy. To make matters worse, in the year 85 BC, just after Caesar turned 15, his father grew ill and soon died. Both Marius and his father had left Caesar much of their property and wealth in their wills. Thus, when Sulla emerged as the winner of this civil war and began his program of proscriptions, Caesar, not yet 20 years old, was in a bad position. Sulla ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia in 82 BC, but Caesar refused and prudently left Rome to hide. Sulla pardoned Caesar and his family and allowed him to return to Rome. In a prophetic moment, Sulla was said to comment on the dangers of letting Caesar live. According to Suetonius, the dictator in relenting on Caesar’s proscription said, "He whose life you so much desire will one day be the overthrow of the part of nobles, whose cause you have sustained with me; for in this one Caesar, you will find many a Marius." Despite Sulla's pardon, Caesar did not remain in Rome and left for military service in Asia (province) and Cilicia. While still in Asia Minor, Caesar was involved in several military operations. In 80 BC while still serving under Thermus, he played a pivotal role in the siege of Miletus. During the course of the battle Caesar showed such personal bravery in saving the lives of legionaries, that he was later awarded the corona civica (oak crown). The award was of the highest honor given to a non-commander, and when worn in public, even in the presence of the Roman Senate, people were forced to stand and applaud his presence. Back in Rome in 78 BC, when Sulla died, Caesar began his political career in the Roman forum at Rome as an advocate, known for his oratory and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption. The great orator Cicero even commented, "Does anyone have the ability to speak better than Caesar?" Aiming at rhetorical perfection, Caesar traveled to Rhodes in 75 BC for philosophical and oratorical studies with the famous teacher Apollonius Molo. On the way, Caesar was kidnapped by Cilicia piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. When they demanded a ransom of twenty talent (weight), he laughed at them, saying they did not know whom they had captured. Instead, he ordered them to ask for fifty. They accepted, and Caesar sent his followers to various cities to collect the ransom money. In all he was held for 38 days would often laughingly threaten to have them all crucified. True to his word, as soon as he was ransomed and released, he organized a naval force, captured the pirates and their island stronghold and put them to death by crucifixion as a warning to other pirates. However, since they had treated him well, he had their throats cut before they were crucified to lessen their suffering. In 69 BC, Caesar became a widower after Cornelia's death trying to deliver a stillborn son. In the same year, he lost his aunt Julia, to whom he was very attached. It was untraditional for Roman women to have great public funerals, but Caesar broke tradition and gave them fine funerals. During the funerals Caesar delivered eulogy speeches from the rostra. Julia's funeral was filled with political connotations, since Caesar insisted on parading Marius's funeral mask. Although Caesar was very fond of both women (according to Suetonius), these speeches were interpreted by his political opponents as propaganda for his upcoming election for the office of quaestor. ==Caesar’s Cursus Honorum== [[Image:Julius Caesar - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Julius Caesar, depicted from the bust in the British Museum, in ''Cassell's History of England (1902)'']] Caesar was elected quaestor by the Assembly of the People in 69 BC, at the age of 30, as stipulated in the Roman ''cursus honorum''. He drew the lots and was assigned with a quaestorship in Hispania Ulterior, a Roman province roughly situated in modern Portugal and southern Spain. As an administrative and financial officer, the trip was largely uneventful, but it was while in Hispania that he had the famous encounter with a statue of Alexander the Great. At the temple of Hercules in Gades, it was said that he broke down and cried. When asked why he would have such a reaction, his simple response was: "Do you think I have not just cause to weep, when I consider that Alexander at my age had conquered so many nations, and I have all this time done nothing that is memorable." Caesar was released early from his office as quaestor, and allowed to return to Rome early. Despite any personal grief over the loss of his wife, of who all accounts suggest he loved dearly, Caesar was set to remarry in 67 BC for political gain. This time, however, he chose an odd alliance. The granddaughter of Sulla, and daughter of Quintus Pompey, Pompeia was to be his next wife. Now as a member of the Senate, thanks to his election earlier as Quaestor, Caesar supported laws which were designed to grant Pompey the Great unlimited powers in dealing with Cilician Pirates in the Mediterranean. Obviously building a relationship with Rome’s great general would play into his hands later. Between the support of the laws regarding Pompey’s command, Caesar served as the curator (Roman law) of the Appian Way. The maintenance of this road, which stretched from Rome to Cumae and beyond to the heel of Italy’s boot, was an important and high profile position. While it was enormously expensive on a personal basis, it gave a great deal of prestige to a young Senator, and Crassus’ support certainly made it an achievable task for Caesar. All the while, Caesar continued to pursued his judicial career until his election as aedile in 65 BC, along with a young rival and member of the optimate faction by name of Bibulus. This magistrate position was the next step in the Roman cursus honorum and was a grand opportunity for the master of the public spectacle. The curule aediles were responsible for such public duties as the construction and care of temples, maintenance of public buildings, traffic, and other aspects of Rome's daily life. Perhaps most important of all, the staging of public games on state holidays and management of the Circus Maximus. Caesar indebted himself to the point of near financial ruin during this time, but enhanced his image irreversibly with the common people. Caesar ended his year as aedile in glory but in bankruptcy. His debts reached several hundred gold talents (millions of Euros in today's currency) and threatened to be an obstacle for his future career. His co‑aedile Bibulus was so unspectacular in comparison that he later commented in frustration that the entire year’s aedile ship was credited to Caesar alone, instead of both. His success as aedile was, however, an enormous help for his election as Pontifex Maximus (high priest) in 63 BC, following the death of the previous holder Caecilius Metellus. This office meant a new house — the ''Domus Publica'' (public house) — in the ''Forum'', the responsibility of all Roman religious affairs and the custody of the Vestal virgins under his roof. For Caesar, it also meant a relief of his debts. The election put Caesar in a position of considerable power, with opportunity for income. The Pontifex was elected to a lifetime term and while technically not a political office, still provided considerable advantages in dealing with the Senate and legislation. Caesar's debut as Pontifex was however marked by a scandal. Following the death of his wife Cornelia, he had married Pompeia Sulla, a granddaughter of Sulla, in 67 BC. As the wife of the Pontifex and an important ''matrona'', Pompeia was responsible for the organization of the Bona Dea festival in December. These rites were exclusive to women and considered very sacred. However, Publius Clodius Pulcher managed to get in the house disguised as a woman. This was absolute sacrilege and Pompeia received a letter of divorce. Caesar himself admitted that she could be innocent in the plot, but, as he said: "Caesar's wife, like the rest of Caesar's family, must be above suspicion." 63 BC was an especially difficult year, not only for Caesar, but for the Roman Republic itself. Caesar ran for, and won, the office of Praetor. Before he could even take office, however, the Catiline Conspiracy erupted putting Caesar in direct conflict with the optimates once again. The result was the conviction to death of five notable Roman men, Catiline's allies, without a trial. The option open was banishment, as imprisonment before trial was unheard of; if banished the men would simply have gone to take command of Catiline's armies in Etruria. The Senate deliberated on the matter, with Caesar one of the few men to speak up against the death penalty. Towards the end of his Praetorship, Caesar was again in serious jeopardy of prosecution for his debts. Crassus came to the rescue again, paying off a quarter of his 20 million denarii balance. Eventually, by 61 BC, Caesar was finally assigned to serve as the Proconsular governor of further Spain, the province he served in as a quaestor. With this appointment, his creditors backed off, allowing that this position could be quite profitable. Leaving Rome even before he was officially to take over, Caesar was not taking chances. Arriving in Hispania, Caesar developed a remarkable reputation as a military commander. Between 61 BC and 60 BC, he won considerable victories over the local Spanish Calaici and Lusitani tribes. During one of his victories, his men hailed him as Imperator in the field, which was a vital consideration in being eligible for a Roman triumph back in Rome. Caesar was now faced with a terrible dilemma, though. He wanted to run for Consul for 59 BC and would have to be present within the city of Rome to do so, but he also wanted to receive the honor of a triumph. The optimates surely would use this against him, forcing him to wait outside the city, as was the custom, until they confirmed his triumph. The delay would force Caesar to miss his chance to run for Consul and he made a fateful decision. In the summer of 60 BC, Caesar entered Rome to run for the highest political office in the Roman Republic. ==First Triumvirate== In 60 BC, Caesar’s decision to forego a chance at a triumph for his achievements in Spain put him in a position to run for Consul. Even though Caesar had overwhelming popularity within the citizen assemblies, he had to manipulate formidable alliances within the Senate itself in order to secure his election. Already maintaining a solid friendship with the fabulously wealthy Crassus, he approached Crassus’ rival Pompey with the concept of a coalition. Pompey had already been considerably frustrated by the inability to get land reform for his eastern veterans and Caesar brilliantly patched up any differences between the two powerful leaders. The alliance was formed in late 60 BC, and remarkably remained a secret for some time. Caesar won the election easily enough, but the Optimates managed to get Caesar’s former co-aedile Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus elected as the junior Consul. Once in office in 59 BC, Caesar’s first order of business was to pass a law that required the public release of all debates and procedures of the Senate. Next on the agenda was the appeasement of Pompey. Unused land in parts of Italy would be restored and offered to Pompey’s veterans. Doing so would not only alleviate the problem of the unemployed mob in Rome but would satisfy Pompey and his legions. Still Cato the younger and the Optimates faction opposed the concept simply because it was Caesar’s idea. Caesar rebuked the Senate and took it directly to the people. While speaking before the citizen assemblies, Caesar asked his co-consul Bibulus his feelings on the bill, as it was important to have the support of both standing consuls. His reply was simply to say that the bill would not be passed even if everyone else wanted it. At this point the so-called first triumvirate was made publicly known with both Pompey and Crassus voicing public approval of the measure in turn. The law carried with overwhelming public support and Bibulus retired to his home in disgrace. Bibulus spent the remainder of his Consular year trying to use religious omens to declare Caesar’s laws as null and void, in an attempt to bog down the political system. Instead, however, he simply gave Caesar complete autonomy to pass almost any proposal he wanted to. After Bibulus’ withdrawal, the year of the Consulship of Caesar and Bibulus was often referred to jokingly thereafter as the year of "Julius and Caesar". Already secure with Crassus, by marrying the daughter of his client Piso, Caesar next strengthened his alliance with Pompey. Pompey was married to Caesar’s daughter Julia. In what seemed to be a mere political edge, the marriage blossomed into romance by all accounts. Caesar was given the Proconsulship of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, granting him the opportunity to match political victories with military glory. This five year term, unprecedented for an area that was relatively secure, was an obvious sign of Caesar’s ambition for external conquests. Caesar’s future campaigns would all be conducted at his own discretion. In an additional stroke of luck, current governor of Gallia Narbonensis died, and this province was assigned to Caesar as well. As 59 BC came to a close, Caesar had the support of the people, along with the two most powerful men in Rome (aside from himself), and the opportunity for infinite glory in Gaul. At the age of 40, while already holding the highest office in Rome and defeating his enemies at every turn, the true greatness of his career was yet to come. Marching quickly to the relative safety of his provinces, to invoke his 5 year imperium and avoid prosecution, Caesar was about to alter the geographic landscape of the ancient world. ==Gallic Wars== Julius Caesar took official command of his provinces of Illyricum, Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul in 59 BC. Beyond the province of Transalpine Gaul was a vast land comprising modern France, called Gallia Comata, where loose confederations of Celtic tribes maintained varying relationships with Rome. For the most part, a general peace had reigned between the tribes and Rome for the better part of the preceding century, but external pressures from Germanic tribes started unsettling the relative calm. In late 59 BC, the Germanic leader Ariovistus lead an invasion of Gaul and raided the border regions, but Caesar quelled the situation at that point by arranging an alliance with the Germans in early 58 BC. As the campaign year of 56 BC opened, Caesar found that Gaul still was not quite ready for Roman occupation. Caesar sent his generals to every corner of Gaul, quelling any Gallic resistance in their way. Decimus Brutus, the young future assassin of Caesar, was sent to build a fleet amongst the Veneti. The Veneti controlled the waterways with a formidable fleet of their own and were augmented by British Celts. At first the Gallic vessels outmatched the Romans, and Brutus could do little to hamper Veneti operations. Roman ingenuity took over, however, and they began using hooks launched by archers to grapple the Veneti ships to their own. Before long, the Veneti were completely defeated, and like many tribes before them, sold into slavery. In all, dozens of tribes were forced to surrender to Roman domination and hundreds of thousands of prisoners were sent back to Rome as slaves. With the defeat of the Gallic resistance, Caesar next began to focus his attention across the channel. Still, the conquest was not quite as complete as it seemed. First Caesar would have to deal with more Germanic incursions before he could cross to Britain. And despite his confidence, the Gallic tribes were not nearly as subdued as he thought. For now, though, Caesar returned to Cisalpine Gaul to attend to political matters in Rome. An agreement was reached with Pompey and Crassus in which Caesar would have his extension on his term as proconsul of Gaul while granting Pompey and Crassus a balance of power opportunity. Pompey and Crassus were to be elected as joint Consuls for 55 BC, with Pompey receiving Spain as his province and Crassus to get Syria. With the matter resolved, Crassus and Pompey returned to Rome to stand for the elections of 55 BC. Despite bitter resistance from the Optimates, including a delay in the election, the two were eventually confirmed as Consuls. Caesar quickly returned to Gaul set into motion the first Roman invasion of Britain. Even after an unsuccessful first invasion, Caesar succeed in invasion a second time with the largest naval invasion in history until the Invasion of Normandy. At year’s end in 55 BC, Caesar had traveled to the farthest point in the known world and held most of Gaul firmly in his hand. But not all was going Caesar’s way. In 54 BC, his only daughter, Julia Caesaris, died in childbirth, leaving both Pompey and Caesar heartbroken. And to make matters worse, Crassus had been killed in 53 BC during his ill-fated campaign in Parthia. Without Crassus or Julia, Pompey began to drift towards the Optimates faction, and relations with Caesar withered. Still away in Gaul, Caesar tried to secure Pompey's support by offering him one of his nieces in marriage, but Pompey refused. Instead, Pompey married Cornelia Metalla, the daughter of Metallus Scipio, one of Caesar's greatest enemies. New discontent was brewing among the tribes of southern central Gaul. Among those tribes were the Arverni. Initially hesitant, a young chieftan, Vercingetorix came to forefront to rally the Gauls. Other neighboring tribes soon joined the growing revolt, especially in the absence of the legions who occupied the northern and eastern portions of Gaul. Caesar had to make haste from Cisalpine Gaul and joined his army in the late winter early spring of 52 BC, Caesar had no choice but to consolidate his forces against the formidable revolt. Caesar followed Vercingetorix’s retreating army to the fortified town of Alesia. With an alleged army of some 80,000 men, Vercingetorix and his Gauls were in shock from Caesar’s Germanic cavalry allies and were in no condition to meet the 60,000 Romans Legionaries on the battlefield. Caesar ordered the complete circumvallation of the Alesian plateau, which would not only enclose the Gauls, but keep his large army occupied during the siege. Walls, ditches and forts of various sizes stretched the entire circle for a total length of 10 miles. In one of the most brilliant siege tactics in the history of warfare, and a testament to the skill of Roman engineering, Caesar ordered a second wall to be built on the outside of the first. This wall, nearly identical to the first in construction and type, extended as much as 15 miles around the inner wall and left enough of a gap in between to fortify the entire Roman army. The first wall was designed to keep Vercingetorix in, and the second wall to keep his allies out. A massive army was raised to defend Vercingetorix. According to Caesar, nearly 250,000 Gauls came in support of their besieged ‘King’. This force marched from the territory of the Aedui to crush the Romans between two forces larger than that of their target. Inside Alesia, however, conditions were terrible, with an estimated 180,000 people (including non-combatant women and children) running out of food and supplies. By the time the relief force arrived, Vercingetorix and his army were in dire straights, with many of his men likely on the verge of surrender. October 2, would prove to be the final battle of Alesia. The Gauls on both sides hammered the weakness in the Roman wall. Overall, the Romans may have been outnumbered as many as 6 to 1. The battle that was once very close to the possible end of Caesar, turned into an all out rout and the Gauls outside the Roman walls were slaughtered. By the end of the battle, the Germanic cavalry would virtually wipe out the retreating Gauls, leaving only Vercingetorix on the inside. Forced back into Alesia after the defeat of his relief force, with no hope of additional reinforcements, and only with the starving remnants of his own army, Vercingetorix was forced to surrender The defeat of Vercingetorix lead to an effective end of the Gallic Wars. The whole campaign resulted in 800 conquered cities, 300 subdued tribes, one million men sold to slavery and another three million dead in battle fields. ==Civil War== The Optimates despised Caesar and his conquests and looked for every opportunity to strip him of his command. Prosecuting Caesar, whether the goal was death, exile or just a symbolic limitation of his power, would prevent his re-establishment of the populares agenda that he so masterfully instituted previously. The years 50 BC and 49 BC were pivotal because during this time frame, Caesar’s imperium, namely safety from prosecution, was set to expire. Caesar badly desired the ability to run for the Consulship in abstentia, thereby allowing him the safe transfer of protection from his Proconsular Imperium, granted by his command in Gaul, to that of the actual Consulship once again. By this time, however, Pompey, likely the only man able to smooth things over, had clearly sided with the Optimates. His jealously over Caesar’s success and his ultimate goal of acceptance and power within the Senate took him ever further from the alliance with Caesar. Laws were passed while Pompey was Consul without colleague that forced a candidate to be present in Rome to run for office. Caesar’s only options throughout were either to surrender willingly and face certain prosecution along the end of his career or life, or go to war. On January 1, 49 BC and the days immediately following, the Senate rejected Caesar’s final peace proposal and declared him a public enemy. Around the 10th of January 49 BC, word reached Caesar and he marched south with the 13th Legion from Ravenna towards the southern limit of Cisalpine Gaul’s border. He likely arrived around January 11, and stopped on the northern bank of the small river border, the Rubicon. Caesar seemed to contemplate the situation understandably for some time before making his final fateful decision. He is then reported to have muttered the now infamous phrase, from the work of the poet Menander, "Alea iacta est", usually quoted as "The die is cast." The Rubicon was crossed and Caesar officially invaded the legal border from his province into Italy, thus starting the civil war. Despite having two legions to Caesar’s one, Caesar’s Gallic legions were on the move to join him so Pompey and the rest of Caesar’s opposition had little choice but to leave Rome immediately and abandon Italy to Caesar. When Caesar entered Rome, he was elected Dictator, but only served for 11 days when he left office and served as Consul instead. Soon joined by four legions from Gaul, Caesar moved swiftly into Thessaly, incorporating the towns of the region under his control. His exhausted and poorly supplied army was able to secure new sources of food and essentially become re-energized for the continuing campaign. Caesar first faced Pompey on July 10, 48 BC at Dyrrhacium. Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat to Pompey. He decisively defeated Pompey's numerically superior army — Pompey had nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry — at the battle of Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC. As the battle closed, Caesar reviewed the field and was likely shaken by the effects of civil war. He claimed that 15,000 enemy soldiers were killed, including 6,000 Romans, while losing only 200 of his own men, though both numbers are likely either over or under exaggerated. Still, the sight of the field apparently had a profound effect on the new master of the Roman world. In surveying the carnage, Caesar supposedly said, "They would have it so, I, Gaius Caesar, after so much success, would be condemned had I dismissed my army." ==Caesar in the East== Following the defeat at Pharsalus, the majority of the remaining Pompeian forces surrendered to Caesar, and the major part of the war was essentially over. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where his own horrible fate awaited him. Respected as the conqueror of the east, Pompey certainly felt comfortable heading into Egypt. While waiting off-shore to receive word from the boy-king, Ptolemy XIV, Pompey was betrayed and assassinated. Stabbed in the back and decapitated, his body was burned on the shore and his head was brought to the king in order to present as a gift to Caesar. On July 24, 48 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus was dead, just short of 58 years old. When Caesar arrived in pursuit of Pompey, to certainly, by all accounts, grant him a pardon and welcome him back to Rome, Ptolemy presented Caesar with Pompey’s head and his signet ring. Caesar, despite realizing Pompey’s death made him the master of Rome, was overcome with grief. Turning away from the slave who presented Pompey’s head, Caesar burst into tears at the sight of his rival, former friend, and son-in-law. When Caesar arrived with just 4,000 men, or just under one full legion, he immediately took over the palace and presumed to secure his authority. He had two goals while in Egypt, secure grain and repayment of Egyptian debts, and also to settle the matter of who should rule the country: Cleopatra VII of Egypt or Ptolemy. Caesar privately requested a meeting with Cleopatra in order to take stock of her before making a decision. Cleopatra was slipped into some bed coverings and presented to Caesar as a gift. Though little is known of the actual meeting, it’s quite clear that the young queen made an enormous impression on Caesar. She was elegant and charismatic, but most of all, she had power and money, and Caesar supposed she was susceptible to manipulation. Caesar, at 52 years old and 35 years her elder, easily withstood her seduction attempts, and seduced her. He would place Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt and use her as the key to controlling the vast wealth of Egypt. By January of 47 BC, Caesar secured the reign of Cleopatra by enforcing the will of her father Ptolemy XII with both military and political force, and married her to her younger brother Ptolemy XIV. Over the next several months, Caesar and Cleopatra went on what seemed like a honeymoon vacation along the Nile. Traveling on Cleopatra’s barge as far south as his men would let him, they toured the entire country all the way to the border of Ethiopia. While Caesar and Cleopatra enjoyed their love affair in earnest, however, Republican forces in Spain and Africa continued to be a threat. Making matters worse, though, Pharnaces II of Pontus, son of the great Roman enemy Mithridates the Great was making incursions against neighboring provinces in the Roman east. Once again Caesar gathered his forces and marched off to face another threat. ==The End of the Civil War== By the campaign season of 47 BC, Caesar left Egypt and began an overland march through the far eastern provinces. Heading towards the trouble with Pharnaces, Caesar traveled through Judaea and Syria, accepting apologies and granting pardons to those foreign kings and Roman governors who had supported Pompey. In so doing, he was also able to rebuild his war chest through the various tributes paid to him. Caesar met King Pharnaces in the battle of Zela. His victory was so swift and so complete that he commemorated it in his triumph with the words: Veni Vidi Vici ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). Thence, in 46 BC, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters under Cato the Younger. He quickly gained a significant victory at Thapsus over the forces of Metellus Scipio, who was killed in battle, and Cato the Younger. After Cato saw that his forces were defeated by Caesar, in traditional Roman fashion, he fell on his sword and committed suicide. Despite this great loss for the Senatorial faction, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus, Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus propraetore) and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Spain, where they continued to resist Caesar’s dominance of the Roman world. Caesar arrived in Spain in late November or early December of 46 BC, with 8 legions and 8,000 cavalry of his own. Caesar’s arrival was completely unexpected by the enemy, and the surprise gave him an early advantage. In March of 45 BC, the two armies faced off in the battle of Munda with Pompey holding the high ground. Caesar was forced to march uphill against the strong enemy position, but he was never one to shirk from a chance at open battle. As his army marched to meet Pompey, and the battle was joined, it soon became clear that this would be among the most ferociously fought battles of Caesar’s career. The exhausting battle was taking its toll and both commanders left their strategic overview positions to join their men in the ranks. Caesar himself later told friends that he had fought many times for victory, but Munda was the first time he had fought for his life. Finally after an epic struggle, Caesar’s 10th legion, under his nephew Octavian, began to make the difference. Positioned on Caesar’s right wing, the 10th started to push back Pompey’s wing. Labienus, in command of Pompey’s cavalry, recognized the threat and broke off from the main battle with his cavalry to secure the camp, but this seemed to have dire consequences. Pompey’s men seemed to have viewed this as a general retreat by the one man who knew Caesar so well, and panic was the result. Caesar’s army overwhelmed the retreating enemy and was merciless in its zeal to end the war. Up to 30,000 men were slaughtered in the carnage, including Labienus, but Gnaeus Pompey managed to escape. Still, it would turn out to be the final major battle and victory of Caesar’s career, and one that effectively ended land based resistance. ==After the Civil War== Over the next few months, Caesar mopped up in Hispania and brutally punished the people for their disloyalty. Gnaeus Pompey was later killed and his brother Sextus who garrisoned Corduba managed to flee Spain entirely. Caesar was joined by his nephew Octavian just prior to the battle of Munda, and the young man secured himself as Caesar’s heir during the campaign in Spain. He certainly learned a great deal about provincial administration from his now all-powerful uncle. It was after the battle of Munda that Caesar stopped referring to Octavian as his nephew and called him his son. Caesar returned to Italy in September, 45 BC, and among his first tasks was to file his will, naming Octavian as his solo heir. While away, the Senate had already begun bestowing honors on Caesar. Even though Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoned nearly every one of them, there seemed to be little open resistance to Caesar, at least publicly. Great games and celebrations were to be held on April 21to honor Caesar’s great victory. Along with the games, Caesar was honored with the right to wear Roman triumph clothing, including a purple robe (reminiscent of the kings of Rome) and laurel crown, on all public occasions. A large estate was being built at Rome’s expense, and on state property, for Caesar’s exclusive use. The title of Imperator also became a legal title that he could use in his name for the rest of his life. A statue of Caesar was placed in the temple of Quirinus with the inscription To the Invincible God. Since Quirinus was the deified likeness of the city and its founder and first King, Romulus, this act identified Caesar not only on equal terms with the gods, but with the ancient kings as well. In yet more scandalous behavior, Caesar had coins minted bearing his likeness. This was the first time in Roman history that a living Roman was featured on a coin, clearly placing him above the Roman state, and tradition. When Caesar actually returned to Rome in October of 45 BC, he gave up his fourth Consulship (which he had held without colleague) and placed Quintus Fabius Maximus and Gaius Trebonius as suffect consuls in his stead. He celebrated a fifth triumph, this time to honor his victory in Spain. The Senate continued to encourage more honors. A temple to Libertas was to be built in his honor, and he was granted the title Liberator. They elected him Consul for life, and allowed to hold any office he wanted, including those generally reserved for Plebeians, like the Tribune. He also was given the power to appointed magistrates to all provincial duties, a process previously done by draw of lots or through the approval of the Senate. The month of his birth, Quintilis, was renamed July (Latin ''Julius'') in his honor and his birthday, July 13, was recognized as a national holiday. Even a tribe of the people’s assembly was to be named for him. A temple and priesthood, the Flamen, was established and dedicated in honor of his family. Caesar, however, did have a reform agenda and took on various subjects social ills. He passed a law that prohibited citizens between the ages of 20 and 40 from leaving Italy for more than 3 years unless on military assignment. This theoretically would help preserve the continued operation of local farms and businesses and prevent corruption abroad. If a member of the social elite did harm or killed a member of the lower class, then all the wealth of the perpetrator was to be confiscated. A general cancellation of one-fourth of all debt also greatly relieved the public and helped to endear him even further to the common population. Caesar tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidized grain and forbade those who could afford privately supplied grain from purchasing from the grain dole. He made plans for the distribution of land to his veterans and for the establishment of veteran colonies throughout the Roman world. Caesar ordered a complete overhaul of the Roman calendar in 46 BC, establishing a 365-day year with a leap year every fourth year (this Julian Calendar was subsequently modified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 into the modern calendar). As a result of this reform, the year 46 BC was in fact 445 days long to bring the calendar into line. Plutarch records that at one point, Caesar informed the Senate that he felt his honours were more in need of reduction than augmentation, but withdrew this position so as not to appear ungrateful. He was given the title Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland"). He was appointed dictator a third time, and then nominated for nine consecutive one-year terms as dictator, effectually making him dictator for ten years. He was also given censorial authority as prefect of morals (praefectus morum) for three years. At the onset of 44 BC, the honors given upon Caesar continued and the subsequent rift between him and the aristocrats deepened. He had been named Dictator Perpetuus, making him dictator for the remainder of his life . This title even began to show up on coinage bearing Caesar’s likeness, placing him above all others in Rome. Some among the population even began to refer to him as ‘Rex’ (Latin ''king''), but Caesar refused to accept the title. But the seeds of conspiracy were beginning to grow within the Senate. ==Assassination== The fear of Caesar becoming king continued when someone placed a diadem (personal wear) on the statue of Caesar on the Rostra. Not long after the incident with the diadem, two tribunes had citizens arrested after they called out the title ‘Rex’ to Caesar as he passed by on the streets of Rome. Caesar acted harshly. He ordered those arrested to be released, and instead took the tribunes before the Senate and had them stripped of their positions. At the coming festival of the Lupercalia, the biggest test of the Roman people for their willingness to accept Caesar as King was to take place. On February 15, 44 BC, Caesar sat upon his gilded chair on the Rostra and watched the race. When Mark Antony ran into the forum and was raised to the Rostra by the priests attending the event. Antony produced a diadem and attempted to place it on Caesar’s head, saying "the people offer this the title of king to you through me." Caesar quickly refused being sure that the diadem didn’t touch his head. The crowd roared with approval, but Antony, undeterred attempted to place it on Caesar’s head again. Still there was no voice of support from the crowd, and Caesar rose from his chair and refused Antony again, saying, "I will not be king of Rome!" The crowd wildly endorsed Caesar’s actions. Caesar planned to leave in April of 44 BC for campaigns in Parthia, and a secret opposition that was steadily building had to act fast. Made up mostly of men that Caesar had pardoned already, they knew their only chance to rid Rome of Caesar was to prevent him ever leaving for Parthia. Caesar summoned the Senate to meet in the Pompey's Theater (built by Pompey) on the Ides of March (March 15) 44 BC. A few days before, a soothsayer had said to Caesar, "Beware the Ides of March." As the Senate convened, Caesar was attacked and stabbed to death by a group of senators who called themselves the Liberators (''Liberatores''); the Liberators justified their action on the grounds that they committed tyrannicide, not murder, and were preserving the Republic from Caesar's alleged monarchical ambitions. Among the assassins who locked themselves in the Temple of Jupiter were Gaius Trebonius, Decimus Junius Brutus, Marcus Junius Brutus, and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Caesar had personally pardoned most of his murderers or personally advanced their careers. Caesar sustained 23 (as much as 35 by some accounts) stab wounds, which ranged from superficial to mortal, and ironically fell at the feet of a statue of his best friend and greatest rival, Pompey the Great. Pompey had recently been deified by the Senate, some accounts report that Caesar prayed to Pompey as he lay dying. In Antiquity, however, his last words were generally thought to be those reported by Suetonius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#82.2 (Jul. 82.2)] as: καὶ σὺ τέκνον? (Gk., "You too, (my) son?"). Shakespeare's ''Et tu, Brute?'' (Lat., "And (even) you, Brutus?") – in the play, ''Julius Caesar_(play)'', are without ancient authority. Caesar's death also marked, ironically, the end of the Roman Republic, for which the assassins had struck him down. The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular, and had been since Gaul and before, were enraged that a small group of high-browed aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who'd been as of late drifting from Caesar, capitalized on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. But Caesar named his grand nephew Gaius Octavius sole heir of his vast fortune, giving Octavius both the immensely powerful Caesar name and control of one of the largest amounts of money in the Republic. In addition, Gaius Octavius was also, for all intents and purposes, the son of the great Caesar, and consequently the loyalty of the Roman populace shifted from dead Caesar to living Octavius. Octavius, only aged 19 at the time of Caesar's death, proved to be ruthless and lethal, and while Antony dealt with Decius Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavius consolidated his position. A new Triumvirate was found — the Second and final one — with Octavian, Antony, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus as the third member. This Triumvirate deified Caesar as ''Divus Julius'' and – seeing that Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder – brought back the horror of proscription, abandoned since Sulla, and proscribed its enemies in large numbers in order to seize even more funds for the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius, whom Antony and Octavian defeated at Battle of Philippi. A third civil war then broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in Antony and Cleopatra's defeat at Battle of Actium, resulted in the ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman Emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus. In 42 BC, Caesar was formally deified as "the Divine Julius" (''Divus Iulius''), and Caesar Augustus henceforth became ''Divi filius'' ("Son of God"). ==The literary Caesar== ''See Literary works of Julius Caesar.'' ==The military Caesar== ''See Military career of Julius Caesar.'' ==Caesar's name== ''See Etymology of the name of Julius Caesar.'' ==Caesar's marriages and offspring== * First marriage to Cinna ** Julia Caesaris, married to Pompey *** a grandson, dead at several days, unnamed ** a stillborn son, unnamed * Second marriage to Pompeia Sulla * Third marriage to Calpurnia * Affair with Cleopatra VII of Egypt ** Caesarion (Caesarion), Egyptian pharaoh * Posthumously adopted son, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Roman emperor ==Chronology== *July 13 100 BC – Birth in Rome; Alternatively, July 12, 102 BC *84 BC – First marriage to Cornelia Cinnilla *82 BC – Escapes the Sullan persecutions *81 BC/79 BC – Military service in Asia and Cilicia; tryst with Nicomedes of Bithynia *70s – Career as an advocate *69 BC – Death of Cornelia, Quaestor in Hispania Ulterior *65 BC – Curule aedile *63 BC – Second marriage to Pompeia Sulla, **December, Divorces Pompeia **Elected ''pontifex maximus'' and ''praetor urbanus'' **the Catilinarian conspiracy *61 BC – Serves of Propraetor in Hispania Ulterior *59 BC – First consulship with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, beginning of the First Triumvirate **Third marriage to Calpurnia Pisonis *58 BC/53 BC – First term as Proconsul of Gaul *54 BC – Death of Julia *53 BC – Death of Crassus: end of the First Triumvirate **53 BC/48 BC — Second term as Proconsul of Gaul *52 BC – Battle of Alesia *49 BC – Crossing of the Rubicon, the civil war starts *48 BC – Defeats Pompey in Greece at Battle of Pharsalus, made dictator (serves for 11 days) **Second consulship with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus *47 BC – Campaign in Egypt; meets Cleopatra VII *46 BC – Defeats Cato and Metellus Scipio in northern Africa, third consulship with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus **Second dictatorship **Elected Pontifex Maximus for life (introduces Julian Calendar) and adoptes Octavian as heir *45 BC – Defeats the last opposition in Hispania **Returns to Rome; fourth consulship (without colleague) **Named ''Pater Patriae'' by the Senate and third dictatorship *44 BC – **Fifth consulship with Marc Antony **Appointed ''perpetual dictator'' **February, Refuses the diadem offered by Antony **March 15, Assassinated *42 BC Formally deified as "the Divine Julius" (Divus Julius), ==References== *''The Gallic War'', by Caesar; Loeb Classics *''Life of Caesar'', by Plutarch; Oxford Classics *''The Twelve Caesars – Julius Caesar'', by Suetonius; Penguin Classics ==Related topics== *Famous military writers *Nine Worthies *Caesarian section *Caesar cipher *Marfan syndrome *Epilepsy ==External links== ===Primary sources=== ====Caesar's own writings==== *[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/caesarx.html Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online] in Latin and translation *[http://digilander.libero.it/jackdanielspl/Cesare/english.html] in Latin and translation (anonymous site) ====Ancient historians on Caesar==== *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar]. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe.) *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar] (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified) *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar] (English translation) *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html Cassius Dio, Books 37‑44] (English translation) ===Secondary Material=== *[http://heraklia.fws1.com/ Julius Caesar] Suzanne Cross's site with in‑depth history of Caesar, plus a timeline and links. *[http://www.livius.org/caa-can/caesar/caesar00.html C. Julius Caesar] Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius.Org) *[http://virgil.org/caesar/ Julius Caesar — virgil.org] An Annotated Guide to Online Resources categorized into Primary Sources, Background & Images, Modern Essays & Historical Fiction. *[http://digilander.iol.it/jackdanielspl/Cesare/english.html Julius Caesar], page with many links in several languages, including English *[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caesar.html History of Julius Caesar] ===Loosely Related=== *[http://www.alljuliuscaesar.bravehost.com/ All Julius Caesar] Summary of Shakespeare's play, with background material on Shakespeare and Caesar. *[http://www.capitolium.org/eng/fori/cesare.htm Forum of Caesar] (Official site of the modern excavators) ==Notes== 1- Official name after 42 BC, ''Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar Divus'', in English, "Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar, the deified one". Born as ''Gaius Iulius Gaii Filius Gaii Nepos Caesar'', in English, "Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius". Ancient Romans Roman dictators Republican consuls Roman generals Murdered Romans Roman era historians Military writers Pre-19th century cryptographers Roman Republic Julio-Claudian Dynasty Romans in Britain Roman gods Murder victims Nine Worthies bn:জুলিয়াস সিজার bs:Julije Cezar ga:I�il Caesar la:C. Iulius Caesar lv:Jūlijs Cēzars nds:Gaius Julius Caesar simple:Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar

This is a selected entry on Template:March 15 selected anniversaries (may be in HTML comment) ---- :Beware the leader who bangs the drums of war in order to whip the citizenry into a patriotic fervor, for patriotism is indeed a double-edged sword. It both emboldens the blood, just as it narrows the mind. And when the drums of war have reached a fever pitch and the blood boils with hate and the mind has closed, the leader will have no need in seizing the rights of the citizenry. Rather, the citizenry, infused with fear and blinded by patriotism, will offer up all of their rights unto the leader and gladly so. How do I know? For this is what I have done. And I am Caesar. :--Gaius Julius Caesar Where on earth does this quotation I removed from the end of the entry come from? I'm googling it and finding it everywhere (mainly on slightly odd political sites); NONE of the occurrences I have found so far give any more information than the tag line: --Gaius Julius Caesar. No source. It is unlikely to have been a statement of Caesar's - unless these are words put into his mouth by modern playwrights! Let me point out that Romans were not big users of drums - their martial music was wind-based (horns, flutes, etc.). user:MichaelTinkler *You've made me curious. The people that quote it seem to take it as Gospel that Julius Caesar did say this, but none has dug any deeper. Styllistically, I understood that Julius's style was fairly straightforward, and that made him a good example for students of Latin. The style for this, allowing for the peculiarities of the translator, still seems terribly florid. The English style is not of the 20th century. If Julius did write this, the end suggests that it was late in his life. user:Eclecticology *This quotation paints a picture of a modern dictatorship with propaganda, nationalistic appeals, "seizing" of "rights". In Caesar's time it was all tied up in being thought a god and having good family connections, not the modern style at all (Jr. Bush notwithstanding). In other words, this doesn't really pass the smell test. It is also worth pointing out that this purported strategy did not work for Caesar. I would be interested both in a clear attribution of this remark and also any serious indication that Caesar's policies pursued this line user:Ortolan88 *I had thought it might be from Plutarch, but haven't managed to find it there. However, I wouldn't be surprised if it was a quotation from one of Caesar's works - or rather, from a ''translation'' of one of his works, and this is an important point. It's meaningless to say that Caesar's style was simple and this English version is "florid", simply because a translator can translate things into florid or simple language as the urge takes them. A second important point to note is that Roman historians - and this includes Caesar himself - treated historiography as a literary genre. Because the quotation is in the first person, it would be a speech put into Caesar's mouth by the writer (which could be Caesar himself), but the reader is not expected to believe that it is word-for-word the speech that was actually made on that occasion. Today we would call this poetic licence. So it's not worth getting all worked up about, except insofar that it would be nice to know where it came from. I can't find it in a dictionary of quotations. user:Deb *The use of the phrase "And I am Caesar" makes it unlikely to have been said by Julius Caesar; the use of the term "Caesar" to denote a high office was not instituted until after the reign of Augustus (and even then, it denoted a minor office, subordinate to the emperor, who was referred to as Augustus in Latin or Basileus in Greek --- in the time of Diocletian the senior emperors were called "Augustus" and the junior emperors "Caesar"). In Julius Caesar's day, it was a name, nothing more; the wording would have made no sense at that time. *"Caesar neither said that nor did that. Armies were assembled by granting soldiers pillage rights, pensions and land in conquered lands upon retirement. The concept of patriotism among the populace as we know it today did not exist, nor did individual rights in the modern sense. It was essentially a class/caste system with no rights other than those assigned by the state or purchased through wealth." (http://www.shenandoahvalley.com/cgi-bin/wwwboard/messages/24.html) *I haven't read all of Caesar's works, but "De Bello Gallica" (the Gaulish Wars) is written entirely in the third person; Caesar never, ever refers to himself as "I". Perhaps this quotation is from Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar". --Charlie :According to this piece in [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/caesar.htm Snopes.com] it isn't in any known work of Caesar or Shakespeare and first appeared on the Internet last year. User:Ortolan88 *Discussion http://www.mojosdailygrind.com/news/quotes.html *This quote was most likely invented by a Moorean pseudo-intellectual college weenie with no grasp of history --User:66.120.157.194 09:34, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC) ---- I've heard that the words ''alea iacta est'' according to the historian Plutarch were actually put by Caesar in greek language, quoting a greek play popular at the time (much the way we quote our favourite movie oneliners these days), does anyone know the exact source in Plutarch for this statement, the corresponding Greek wording, and the play and playwright supposedly quoted? -- User:Nixdorf :Quick digging in electronic texts found the answer. I'm adding it to the main page so you can see this for yourselves. -- User:Nixdorf Still looking for the name of the quoted play though, please help out if you can. -- User:Nixdorf No one appears to be able to cite anything beyond the fact that it was Greek, translated to "let the dice fly high" (rather than "the die is cast", Suetonius's version), and a line from Menander. -- User:Publius ---- Another issue, should Caesar be written C�sar, now that Wikipedia supports all of ISO 8859-1? Or is the two-letter form prefered in the English world? -- User:Nixdorf :I believe we should use Caesar since most English speaking reader would search for/write Caesar. --User:Lorenzarius 15:53 Mar 18, 2003 (UTC) ::Well, Julius C�sar will actually take you to the real thing as it is right now, but it could just as well be the other way around, so it doesn't matter much what you search for, you will find your C�sar either way. I was wondering about common convention in other encyclopedias here... (Or should I say encyclop�dia? :-) -- User:Nixdorf ------ I have corrected the statement that Pompeia was a relative of Pompey the Great. Her father was a Pompey, of course, but from the family of Pompeius Rufus. Pompey�s family was a bit obscure until is life. And she was a grandaughter of Sulla (Suetonius, for instance) Muriel Gottrop And another thing: who ever wrote this article did a very nice work . Congratulations! User:MurielGottrop ----- Anyone know why it should be tsar instead of czar.. the latter spelling is more in line with the origin of the word. --User:Dante Alighieri 03:03 12 Jul 2003 (UTC) The Russian transliteration uses the letter which is usually translated as "Ts" as the first character. User:RickK 05:38 12 Jul 2003 (UTC) :Well, the OED lists czar as the ''former'' common spelling for the word which is ''currently'' spelled tsar. I'm changing the text of the article back to czar as it is likely to be more illustrative to the point at hand. The hyperlink still goes to the tsar article, so there's no risk of confusion. --User:Dante Alighieri 07:56 12 Jul 2003 (UTC) ----- After a re-reading of Suetonius and Plutarch's biographies of Caesar, I noted a few flaws on the former version of this article and I decided to expand and rewrite it. Some notes on the revision: :The First Triumvirate was not a government, but an informal alliance: its comparison with the second triumvirate is not formal since this one had legal implications and Caesar's triumvirate didn't. It was only a political alliance and did not imperilled the Republic. In 59 BC, Caesar was still a believer in the system. :Brutus was not Caesar's adopted son. If so, he would not be known as Brutus, but as Gaius Julius Caesar Junianus. The (doubtful) last words of Caesar "You too my son?" must be interpreted as a figure of speech. "My son" is an expression often directed at persons that are not biological or adopted siblings. Caesar had known Brutus since his birth, was intimate of his mother and taught him rhetoric. It is only natural that he referred to him as "my son". :I kept the second paragraph of the chapter The Name Caesar, but I have strong reservations about this… :Caesar did not receive the title ''Imperator'': this was given to Augustus Caesar in 27 BC. As far as I understand he died a Republican, without having a glimpse of the end of the Republic. The Empire is Augustus doing. I also removed the excessive (and a bit annoying) linking of some words. User:Muriel Gottrop 10:15, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC) :Caesar did receive the title ''imperator'', as did all triumphators (including Marius, Sulla, Metellus Pius, Pompey, and Cicero). He simply did not use it the way that Caesar Augustus did; Plutarch describes Caesar as wearing triumphal regalia during the Lupercal festival, despite not conducting a triumph. -- User:Publius ---- The only reference I ever found of a Tertia (or Tertulla) daughter of Servilia Caepionis was in Suetonius (Caesar, 50), where she is referred to be Caesar's mistress. Now, since we are talking about Romans not Ptolomies, that's quite different from daughter. Can anybody provide a reference for the addition of Tertia to Caesar's descendants? If not, I'll remove it in two days. Cheers, User:Muriel Gottrop 07:57, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC) *Removed, but still open to discussion if the reference is other that ''The October Horse'' :) User:Muriel Gottrop ---- Is there any reason to have a List of Battles & a Chronology of J.C.'s life in this article? Both of these ought to be mentioned in the text body. (And I'm unaware of any other biography with these kinds of helps.) I believe they are unnecessary, & should be removed. -- User:Llywrch 20:39, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC) (awaiting refutal) :I can go either way. Chronological stuff could go to year articles, but he is by far the #1-most-interesting Roman for the general public, and a chronology is a useful way to summarize a moderately complicated text for the impatient reader. The list of battles is most usefully subsumed in timeline in any case. User:Stan Shebs 20:52, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC) ::I think a chronology is very neat for this and any biography. The list of battles can go if the rest of the world like, but i added it to give some detail to the section Caesar as a military commander. User:Muriel Gottrop 13:21, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) ---- I remember reading that Caesar had a certain sense for the future, a sort of precognition. Could anyone tell me if and where in classical sources references are made to this? I searched the article, but wasn't surprised not to find it as it hasn't been proven. Thank you. -- User:Redge 14:49, 14 Apr 2004 (UTC) ---- What is everyone's opinion about what the title of this article should be? Caesar's full name was "Gaius Julius Caasar", although the common term for him was simply "Julius Caesar". I think the title of the article should reflect his full correct name User:Husnock :As I see it, the title should be Julius Caesar (or the most common recognizable name), but the first time he is mentioned in the article, the full name should be given. --Merovingian">User:Merovingian✍Talk">User talk:Merovingian 18:33, Jul 5, 2004 (UTC) :Wikipedia policy is to use the common name. See Wikipedia:Naming conventions (common names). User:Mintguy User talk: Mintguy 18:34, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC) :Yeah, same reasoning applies as for Bill Clinton vs William Jefferson Clinton; prefer the commonest usage for article titles. Most Romans would be totally unrecognizable if their full names were always used - Publius Vergilius Maro for example - not to mention link piping would get pretty complicated. User:Stan Shebs 18:38, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC) :Wow, that was quick. Anyway, I found the answer: Wikipedia:Naming conventions (ancient Romans) This name he stays! User:Husnock ::Too many people watching the one article. Actually, the Roman naming convention page is just my proposal, but if nobody's objected to it in three months, it must be policy by now! :-) User:Stan Shebs 19:05, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC) ---- There's no mention of Caesar as an Imperator, though I know he was (the title only took on the meaning of Emperor later on). Unfortunately, I don't know the details nor when he was hailed as Imperator, so I can't really add to it with my current knowledge. User:Jsan 00:45, 6 Jul 2004 (UTC) To be hailed Imperator on the field of battle was the requirement for a general to achieve a Triumph. Caesar was hailed Imperator during his Spanish campaigns, but was unable to claim his triumph because of political maneuvering (he wanted to stand for Consul, for which he had to register in person, but if he crossed the Pomerium he lost his Imperium, which meant he lost his Triumph.). User:Winjer 18:46, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC) ---- The accusation that Caesar had an affair with King Nicomedia of Bithnyia is unlikely to be true, I think. The accusation followed him throughout his life, but it doesn't fit with the rest of his character - he was a stickler for being a Roman of the Romans. This certainly didn't include homosexuality, popular in Greece but severely disapproved of in Rome. Can I suggest the page is edited to say only that this was a rumour? User:Winjer 18:46, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC) == "kai su, teknon" vs "Et tu, Brute" vs garbage == His last words have been various [sic] reported as: * Kai su, teknon? (Gr., "And you, son?") Suetonius reports that Ceasar said (in Greek) "kai su, teknon?" UNFORTUNATELY...someone decided, in their great wisdom, that it would be best to delete the precise reference to Suetonius, which I included originally. Furthermore, "teknon" more properly means "that which is born, a child." For the Latinists here, just don't go thinking "teknon" = "filius," because it doesn't. Tu quoque, Brute, fili mi! (Lat., "You too, Brutus, my son!") I challenge you to provide a reference for this. If you want to argue that Suetonius put Greek into Caesar's mouth, I'd be happy to look at any evidence (i.e., references to texts and/or scholarly works) you might have. Et tu, Brute? (Lat., "And you, (my son) Brutus?" - it can be argued that "my son" is implied by the case used) What the hell?? First of all, this quotation comes from S-H-A-K-E-S-P-E-A-R-E...only from Shakespeare. Secondly, the case used is the vocative. Q: How does this imply "my son??" A: It doesn't. The context, together with a certain little itty-bitty passage, in Greek, from Suetonius gives us the "my son" bit. Looks like someone decided to delete all of Caesar's reported dying words except for the quote from Shakespeare's play. What's the reason for that? :You're right, unsigned pal. The first step is to restore the Suetonius quote and ref. User:Bill Thayer 23:41, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC) == Small niggle == Just curious why Atlantic Ocean is written "Oceanus Atlanticus"? Obviously it is the contemporary spelling, but the rest of the article in in English, right? User:Pomegranate 00:34, Sep 7, 2004 (UTC) == ??? == Anyone else notice "hello there alex hi dennis" at the very beginning of the Early Life section? It doesn't appear if you try to edit the page. Very weird. == JULIUS CAESAR -A GENIUS? == It would seem to be considering his achievements, literary,generalship,engineering,law and politics, this is one ancient Roman who has done it all. His one failing was his big fat ego which led to his death. A genius nonetheless. --Actually, I would say it was the multiple stab wounds that led to his death. ;-) --It could also be argued that he died due to his trust in others and his sense of duty to Rome. I could be wrong, but didn't Artemidorus try to warn him, but he said that personal matters come after Rome? and shouldn't Caeser have an honour guard or something similar? User:Firestorm 00:36, Apr 30, 2005 (UTC) :He was entitled to lictors nad German guards, but didn't bother with them. He considered it better to just accept death when it came than to be constantly paranoid and obsessed over stopping it (the night of March 14th, at a party, Caesar even said that his preferred form of death was fast, violent, and unexpected). He also believed that no one would dare assassinate him, as it would lead to renewed civil strife, a lose-lose situation. User:Kuralyov 04:24, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC) == Caesarion as Caesar's son? == In the article is written that Caesarion was Caesar's son. Is this true? Did actually Caesar recognize the child?--User:Panairjdde 16:44, 24 May 2005 (UTC) Apparently; Cleopatra belived it, amd if Caesar had not also, he would not have allowed the use of his name; Mark Antony also declared so in the Senate, but the party of Octavian obviously had an interest in denying it. Plutarch records the parentage as a fact, but Dio and Suetonius have their doubts. User:Djnjwd 21:54, 24 May 2005 (UTC) :Notice that, according to Roman law, a son must be recognized by his father to be part of the family. So, should I put a notice that, even if Cesarion possibly was biological son, he was not part of Caesar's family?--User:Panairjdde 07:38, 25 May 2005 (UTC) :I dont think he recognized as legitimate because, in his last will, Caesar acted as if he had no sons by adopting Octavius and naming him (a grand-nephew) as heir. So he was not part of his family. Apart from legal implications, i think he knew the boy was his, as well as everyone else. The fact that Caesarion was Caesar's son is the reason why Octavius killed at the first chance he had. User:Muriel Gottrop 07:53, 25 May 2005 (UTC) ::The fact that Caesarion's mother was not a Roman citizen, and thus neither was Caesarion, was probably rhe reason Caesar never publicly recognized him/included him in his will. If the boy can't inherit anything, then why bother?User:Kuralyov 10:28, 25 May 2005 (UTC) ==Origin of pictures near top?== The author of the painting and bust should be mentioned, and when were they produced. User:Deus Ex 21:22, 24 May 2005 (UTC) ==Iacta alea est== I can't help feeling that the usual translation "The die is cast" gives a wholly misleading impression to the modern ear. (I've changed the translation from the unwarranted subjunctive; the Greek quote from Menander was in the subjunctive, but the Latin is indicative and is by far the more widely quoted.) A better, if somehat demotic, translation would be "The bet's on." User:Djnjwd 22:34, 28 May 2005 (UTC) :That's very, very good. User:Bill Thayer 17:23, 30 May 2005 (UTC) ==Link deletion== The "RomansOnline" site was very weak, and not worth linking to; there are, after all, dozens and maybe even hundreds of sites at that level. With the others, at any rate, all the major sites on Caesar are covered. User:Bill Thayer 17:23, 30 May 2005 (UTC) == Caesar learning hebrew? == Dear Muriel Gottrop, I would like to know what your source is for writing "where he (=Caesar) apparently learned to speak several languages, including Hebrew and Gallic dialects." Tommie Hendriks apjhendriks@hotmail.com :I would guess he learned Hebrew in either the East or in the Subura, and Gallic while in Gaul or Hispania. User:Kuralyov 20:58, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC) :Suetonius (life of the Caesars), Plutarch (Caesar) and JC (Commentaries on the Gallic Wars) all these sources mention his ability for languages. I dont know the paragraphs by memory. User:Muriel Gottrop 10:26, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC) :As for the Gallic dialects: It is said that at least one of Caesar's immediate servants was a Gallic slave. But what is the source, where is it written that he did learn Gallic from him? Gallic slaves spoke Latin in Rome. And in Gaul Caesar used interpreters, even when he wished absolute privacy. De Bello Gallico 1.19: itaque priusquam quicquam conaretur, Diviciacum ad se vocari iubet et cotidianis interpretibus remotis per C. Valerium Troucillum, principem Galliae provinciae, familiarem suum, cui summam omnium rerum fidem habebat, cum eo conloquitur; �Therefore, before he attempted anything, he orders Diviciacus to be summoned to him, and, when the ordinary interpreters had been withdrawn, converses with him through Caius Valerius Troucillus, chief of the province of Gaul, an intimate friend of his, in whom he reposed the highest confidence in every thing; :As for Hebrew is there any evidence? And from whom should Caesar have learnt Hebrew in his youth, in the Suburra? The Jews in Rome spoke Greek, if they did not speak Latin. And why should he? In order to read the Books of the Jews? But they were translated into Greek (Septuaginta: LXX) since the third century BC. :Either there is a source, or this is a supposition. But one can suppose false things. It would be more plausible to suppose that Caesar learnt Etruscan. From Claudius it is known that he learnt it. The disciplina etrusca (auspicina, haruspicina, etc.) constituted an important part of the Roman Religion. So Caesar, being Pontifex Maximus, had to know it too. But Caesar learning Hebrew? Is this written somewhere else than in the Wikipedia? If it is the case, it would be very interesting to know the sources. So, please, look up, and give us that important information. If not, please delete that passage: :"where he apparently learned to speak several languages, including Hebrew and Gallic dialects." � or at least this: "including Hebrew and Gallic dialects." :Marc.

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