Information

:''"Info" redirects here; for the domain, see .info'' ''Information'' is a term with many meanings depending on context, but is as a rule closely related to such concepts as meaning, knowledge, instruction, communication, representation, and mental stimulus. Although many people speak of the advent of the "information age," the "information society," and information technology, and even though information science and computer science are often in the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has come to acquire. Often information is viewed as a type of input to an organism or designed device. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device (energy) by themselves. In his book ''Sensory Ecology,'' Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function. The most important meanings of ''information'' are identified in the following sections roughly in order of narrowest to broadest. ==Information as a message== Information is a message, something to be communicated from the sender to the receiver. If information is viewed merely as a message, it does not have to be accurate. It may be a truth or a lie, or just a sound of a kiss. Strangely it may even be a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding. This model assumes a sender and a receiver, and does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation or measurement. Information in this sense is simply any message the sender chooses to create. ===Measuring information=== The view of information as a message came into prominence with the publication in 1948 of an influential paper by Claude Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication." This paper provides the foundations of information theory and endows the word ''information'' not only with a technical meaning but also a measure. If the sending device is equally likely to send any one of a set of

N

messages, then the preferred measure of "the information produced when one message is chosen from the set" is the base two logarithm of

N

. In this paper, Shannon continues: :''The choice of a logarithmic base corresponds to the choice of a unit for measuring information. If the base 2 is used the resulting units may be called binary digits, or more briefly bits, a word suggested by John Tukey. A device with two stable positions, such as a relay or a flip-flop circuit, can store one bit of information. N such devices can store N bits ...'' [The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, p. 379, (July 1948).] A complementary way of measuring information is provided by Algorithmic information theory. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is to generate the list. The sequence below would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each symbol, since they are statistically random, and each new symbol would increase the measurement. : 123456789101112131415161718192021 Also see: self-information, lexicographic information cost ==Information as a pattern== Information is any represented pattern. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an object and its representation, as well as the involvement of someone capable of understanding this relationship. This view seems therefore to require a conscious mind. Consider the following example: economic statistics represent an Economics, however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as data in computing, statistics, and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. The electromagnetism patterns in a computer network and connected devices are related to something other than the pattern itself, such as text to be displayed and Computer keyboard input. Signal (information theory)s, signs, and symbols are also in this category. Painting and drawing contain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a profile, or a landscape. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This type of information still assumes some involvement of conscious mind, of either the entity constructing the representation, or the entity interpreting it. When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object (sampling) or use a system of signs to replace (encode), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things (decode). One example of the former is to sip a soup to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of information. To repeat, information in this sense does not assume direct communication, but it assumes involvement of some conscious mind. Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium. ==Information as sensory input== Information is any type of sensory input. When an organism with a nervous system receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, while abstract painting does not represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object. Entertainment in general is not intended to be informative. Music, the performing arts, amusement parks, works of fiction and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not forms of information according to the previous definitions above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is. ==Information as an influence which leads to a transformation== Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose. When Marshall McLuhan speaks of Medium and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also, pheromones are often said to be "information" in this sense. In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in physics to define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way). See the section below on information as a property in physics. (Also see Gregory Bateson.) ==Information as a property in physics== ''Main article: Physical information'' Information has a well defined meaning in the field of Physics. Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry. Another link is demonstrated by the Maxwells demon thought experiment. In this a direct relationship between information and another physical property, Entropy, is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system (in practical terms this often means generating heat). Thus, in the study of logic gates, the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an ''AND gate'' is more than for the ''NOT gate'' (because information is destroyed in an ''AND gate'' and simply converted in an ''NOT gate''). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of Quantum computers. ==Etymology of "information" in English== According to the Oxford English Dictionary (http://dictionary.oed.com/), the earliest historical meaning of the word ''information'' in English was the act of ''informing'', or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used for an ''item'' of training, ''e.g.'' a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise informations and techniques." (1386) The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action" ending "''-ation''" (descended through French from Latin "''-tio''") to the earlier verb ''to inform'', in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) ''Inform'' itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb ''informare'', to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word ''informatio'' meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word ''information'' in English is unclear. As a final note, the ancient Greek word for ''form'' was eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by Plato (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see The Forms). ==References== *Bekenstein, Jacob D. (2003, August). Information in the holographic principle. ''Scientific American''. Retrieved from http://www.referencenter.com ==See also== * Algorithmic information theory * Classified information * Freedom of information * Entropy * Propaganda model * Free Information Infrastructure * Information theory * Information overload * Information processing * Information processor * Information mapping * Information technology * Library and Information Science * Medium * Observation * Physical information * Prediction * Receiver operating characteristic * Systems theory and cybernetics * Satisficing * Information (statistics) -- see Fisher information * The Information highway - A nickname of the Internet, dubbed the greatest source of information. ==External links== *[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html Principia Cybernetica entry on negentropy] *[http://www.referencenter.com Internet Information Reference Center] Communication Cybernetics Information technology Information fa:اطلاعات simple:Information

Information

''Definition: A meaningful reply to a question.'' Not to be nitpicky, but the question itself is information, too, and sometimes it's harder to find the right question than to find the right answer. It would be nice if information would be as simple to define, but a proper definition of the word might actually be one of the hardest scientific questions of our time. Information theory is still fairly isolated from the rest of physical theory, sort of like a ghost-matter division. Wikipedia can't solve scientific problems, only report their current state, so we should try to come up with attributed concepts of information here. --User:Eloquence 12:36 Nov 9, 2002 (UTC) :This definition has a flaw - information not always is a meaningful reply to a question. I suggest the following definition. \"Information is Data about Entity.\", more precisely, definition would be ''"Information is data or a datum which describes entities, an entity or a part of it, in relation to other entities like factual objects, actual positions and/or imaginary constructs like ideas, plans, goals, etc."'' -User:Inyuki 20:35, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC) ----- I thought I could not make contribution according to the pre-existing format, though the format was interesting. I moved it to below, so that others can work on it and replace my contribution, or merge with it. User:Tomos ==Definition== A meaningful reply to a question. The contextual value of an equation or an integration or a database. Information content may be implicit or explicit.

History of the term information

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Statistical view

Information transmission has been studied from a statistical and coding viewpoint by Claude E. Shannon.

Computer science view

Data that is put into a context.

Linguistic view

Context written to a format of a particular character base. .......

Psychological view

Cognitive integration of thought. .......

Economic view

Business information etc. ---- I am new to wiki and wikipedia, but am very interested in concepts of information. A new field of inquiry for this is called Philosophy of Information, dealing with the nature and meaning of information. I am slowly compiling a bibliography of sources, by authors such as Floridi, Herold, Machlup, and so forth. Should wikipedia entries for this go on this page or should a new page under the Philosophy category be added? See also http://orgs.unt.edu/asis/POI.htm Jrcastledine ---- Here is something to absorb into your studies. Imagine a blind man about to step off the pavement into a roadway and a racing cyclist is coming up fast, relatively quiet, head down. Somebody shouts in Swahili, "Don't cross there is a bicycle coming". Unfortunately the blind man does not understand Swahili. Point : One man's information is another man's noise. ==Truth== E.g. one dimension is "truth" (some definitions of "information" require that a message must contain a truthful message before it can be said to convey information); - Peak (from User talk:Bensaccount) Information does not have to be truth. Information quite often doesn't correspond with reality. User:Bensaccount 13:30, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC) The argument you would make is "is untrue information still information?". The answer is yes, and I can give many examples to prove it if you want me to. User:Bensaccount 13:33, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC) [Peak:] You are missing the point. "Information" has multiple meanings. (Have you actually really understood the article yet?) One of the primary meanings is related to the idea of adding to someone's knowledge. One has to employ some rather devious arguments to get from a false message to an increase in knowledge. Ergo back we go. User:Peak 16:17, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC) No you are out of context. Information is not knowledge. ''When relating to something or somebody'' information is knowledge. This information can be untrue, yet still be information. User:Bensaccount 16:23, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC) Also, do you know what a circular definition is? User:Bensaccount 17:00, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC) [DavidCary:] I think I would like to see a couple of examples of information in the form of false facts. I think I agree with Peak. I agree that some people use "information" to refer to true facts, while others use it to refer to any sort of message, true or not. So both definitions need to be mentioned in the article. : Fahrenheit 9/11 - there is your example. Lots of information in that movie, very little truth. User:KeyStroke 17:15, 2004 Oct 19 (UTC) ==Negentropy== Negentropy is an incorrect near synonym for information. It is supposedly the opposite of the thermodynamic property entropy. User:Bensaccount 23:01, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC) == Information and Physics == Perhaps the article should explain the relationship a bit more? Information is supposedly some kind of superficial state existing within our minds, but apparently knowledge and information can be affected by quantum physics, and speed of transmission cannot exceed the speed of light, even if it were procuring information from clues that are in space, very far apart. There is also the theory that emerges in the field of quantum computing that destroying information yields heat, (ie. merging two paths which have values of 1 and zero each, into a single path of 1) as though information is like energy, not a mere recognition of facts, nor the state of our minds. Then there is information entropy, as well. What exactly IS information then? Why would it be affected by physics if it was just a superficial state? And if it isn't superficial, it can't be a mere message, pattern or sensory input, now can it? Would anyone with expertise on this write about this a bit more? : I put in a few lines which might clarify things, including a link to Maxwells demon. I took out the text about interference and quantum computers as I don't think it is the heat generated that causes interference, but simply that a quantum operation has to be reversible (in other words information cannot be lost), otherwise it stops being a quantum operation. That is why AND gates are not permitted. Entropy and heat generation of AND gates are seperate non-quantum ideas, though the two concepts are closely linked. Couldn't think of a way to put this clearly, so I took the easy way out and left it for the Quantum computer page to explain. : I also put in a reference to Alg Inf Theory alongside shannon theory, but if the "Measuring information" section is a part of "Information as a message" rather than a seperate section this is probably out of place. User:Rattle 00:26, 24 May 2005 (UTC) ''Do we need an article on Bekenstein bound, or is the brief mention in other wikipedia articles ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=Bekenstein&fulltext=Search ) sufficient ?'' === Information, matter and energy === Tom Stonier envisions information to be a property of the universe, as real a property as matter and energy. See "Information and the Internal Structure of the Universe�, Springer, London, 1990, [http://www.google.com/search?hl=cs&q=Stonier+Tom+information&btnG=Hledat&lr=], [http://sochi.net.ru/~maxime/doc/Stonier.shtml], .... --User:Michal Jurosz == Vandalism? == My recent edit on this article was hardly vandalism...could you bring it directly up to me first?! Information DOES have a relation with quantum physics, mind you. -- User:Natalinasmpf 19:33, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC) == Etymology == Note: I am moving the section on the etymology of the word "information" in English from the article on "physical information" to this main article - it seems a more logical place for it. --User:Mpfrank, 6/14/05

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#redirect Wikipedia:Importance

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Knowledge

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