
: ''For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation).'' The Inca Empire (called Tawantinsuyu in Changes in spelling of Indian names Aymara and Quechua, or Tahuantinsuyu in old spelling Quechua, which means Land of the Four Corners), was an empire located in South America from 1438 CE to 1533 CE. Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the Andes mountain ranges. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by 1533 CE, Atahualpa, the last Inca, was killed on the orders of the Conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas hegemony. The official language of Tahuantinsuyu was Quechua, although over seven hundred local languages were spoken. The Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their gods, the foremost of which was Inti, the sun god. [[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|290px|right|A view of Machu Picchu, "the Lost City of the Incas," now an archaelogical site.]] The meaning of the phrase ''tawantin suyu'' in Quechua is "the four regions between", which referred to the four provinces whose corners met at the empire's capital, Cusco (Qosqo). The foreign name Inca Empire is derived from the word Inca, which means "Emperor." Today the word Inca still refers to the emperor, but can also refer to the people or the civilization, and is used as an adjective when referring to the beliefs of the people or the artifacts they left behind. == Origin stories == ''See also: Inca mythology'' The Inca had two origin beliefs. In one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in Pacaritambo sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, Sinchi Roca was born to Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, and Sinchi Roca is the person who finally led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as Manco Capac. In the other origin myth, the sun god Inti ordered Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo to emerge from the depths of Lake Titicaca and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established Sapa Inca, or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco. We know of these myths mostly by means of oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence can be supported historically. == Emergence and Expansion == The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century CE. Under the leadership of Manco Capac, they formed the small city-state of Qosqo, or Cuzco in Spanish. In 1438 CE, under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti, they began their conquest of the Andean regions of South America and adjacent lands. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included what are now Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and also extended into portions of what are now Chile, Argentina and Colombia. Pachacuti reorganized Cuzco into the Tahuantinsuyu. The Tahuantinsuyu was a federation which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with powerful leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. The land Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the thirteen colonies of the United States in 1776, and consisted of nearly the entire Andes mountain range. Tahuantinsuyu as of 1463 CE is shown in red on the map. Pachacuti is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a Camp David-like retreat. Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a ''fait accompli'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Pachacuti's son, Túpac Inca, conquered even more land, most importantly the Kindom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia. Huayna Cápac added some land area though less than his father and grandfather. Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the Chimú used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the disability and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the Chachapoya that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish. == Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba == ''Main article: Spanish conquest of Peru'' In 1532, when Spanish explorers led by Francisco Pizarro arrived on the coast of Peru, the empire stretched as far north as present-day Colombia and as far south as Chile and Argentina. However, a war of succession and unrest among newly-conquered territories had already considerably weakened the empire. Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with fewer than 200 men and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. However, many people joined Pizarro's army on the way, increasing the force to several thousand. The Inca fought fiercely against the Spanish conquistadors, but could not simultaneously face the technology of the Spanish (particularly firearms and cannon) and rebellion among subject tribes. Cuzco was definitively lost in 1536. The Inca leadership retreated to the mountain regions of Vilcabamba, where it remained for over another thirty years. In 1572, the last of the Inca rulers, Túpac Amaru, was beheaded and Tahuantinsuyu officially came to an end. == After the Spanish conquest == After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spanish used the Inca Mita_%28Inca%29 (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement. The major languages of the empire, Quechua language and Aymara language, were employed by the Catholic Church to evangelize in the Andean region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages. The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the 1780 rebellion led by Tupac Amaru II against the Spanish, as well as contemporary the guerrilla movements Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) and Sendero Luminoso in Peru and Tupamaros in Uruguay. Tawantinsuyu has a modern rainbow flag which is displayed throughout Peru. == Society == === Political organization of the empire === [[Image:Ollantaytambo.jpg|thumb|200px|''Ollantaytambo'' constituted an administrative, religious, agricultural and military complex for the Incas]] The most powerful figure in the empire was the Sapa Inca (emperor), or simply Inca. When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Inca education (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education. The Tahuantinsuyu was a federation which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Qontisuyu (SW), and Qollasuyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the Mita_%28Inca%29 (mandatory public service). The four provincial governors were called ''apos''. The next rank down, the ''t'oqrikoq'' (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration: {| |- align=right !Level name !!Mita payers |- align=right |Hunu kuraqa ||10000 |- align=right |Waranqa kuraqa ||1000 |- align=right |Pachaka Kuraqa ||100 |- align=right |Chunka kamayuq ||10 |} Every five ''waranqa curaca'', ''pachaka curaca'', and ''chunka kamayuq'' had a intermediary to the next level called, respectively, ''picqa waranqa curaca'', ''picqa pacaka curaca'', and ''picqa conka kamayoq''. This means that the middle managers managed either two or five people, while the ''conka kamayoq'' (at the worker manager level) and the ''apos'' and ''t'oqrikoq'' (in upper management) each had about 20 people reporting to them. The descendants of the original Inca tribe were not numerous enough to administer their empire without help. To cope with the need for leadership at all levels the Inca established a civil service system. Boys at age of 13 and girls at age of first menstruation had their intelligence tested by the local Inca officials. If they failed, their ayllu (extended family group) would teach them one of many trades, such as farming, gold working, weaving, or military skills. If they passed the test, they were sent to Cuzco to attend school to become administrators. There they learned to read the quipu (knotted cord records) and were taught Inca iconography, leadership skills, religion, and, most importantly, mathematics. The graduates of this school constituted the nobility and were expected to marry within that nobility. While some workers were held in great esteem, such as royal goldsmiths and weavers, they could never themselves enter the ruling classes. The best they could hope for was that their children might pass the exam as adolescents to enter the civil service. Although workers were considered the lowest social class, they were entitled to a modicum of what today we call due process, and all classes were equally subject to the rule of law. For example, if a worker was accused of stealing and the charges were proven false, the local official could be punished for not doing his job properly. === Arts === The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of Huari and Tiwanaku arts. ====Architecture==== Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the Tiwanaku. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cusco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that strike the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once. The Inca also sculpted the natural surroundings themselves. One could easily think that a rock along an Inca road system is completely natural, except if one sees it at the right time of year when the sun casts a stunning shadow, betraying its synthetic form. The Inca rope bridges were also used to transport messages and materials by chasqui running messengers. The Inca also adopted the terraced agriculture that the previous Huari civilization had popularized. But they did not use the terraces solely for food production. At the Inca ''tambo'', or inn, at Ollantaytambo the terraces were planted with flowers, extraordinary in this parched land. The terraces of Moray were left unirrigated in a desert area and seem to have been solely decorative. The Inca provincial thrones were often carved into natural outcroppings, and there were over 360 natural springs in the areas surrounding Cusco, such as the one at Tambo Machay. At Tambo Machay the natural rock was sculpted and stonework was added, creating alcoves and directing the water into fountains. These pseudo-natural carvings functioned to show both the Inca's respect for nature and their command over it. ==== Clothing ==== Inca officials wore stylized tunics that indicated their status. The tunic displayed here is the highest status tunic known to exist today. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white checkerboard pattern topped with a red triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the Inca army. Some of the motifs make reference to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the Huari and the three step stairstep motif of the Moche. In this royal tunic, no two squares are exactly the same. Cloth was divided into three classes. ''Awaska'' was used for household use and had a threadcount of about 120 threads per inch. Finer cloth was called ''qunpi'' and was divided into two classes. The first, woven by male ''qunpikamayuq'' (keepers of fine cloth), was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade, to adorn rulers and to be given as gifts to political allies and subjects to cement loyalty. The other class of ''qunpi'' ranked highest. It was woven by ''aqlla'' (female virgins of the sun god temple) and used solely for royal and religious use. These had threadcounts of 600 or more per inch, unexcelled anywhere in the world until the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a ''llawt'u'', a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca Atahualpa commissioned a ''llawt'u'' woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each ayllu, or extended family, had its own headdress. In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of Chan Chan, were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave ''qunpi''. (The Chimu had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from Sican.) The wearing of jewellery was not uniform throughout the empire. Chimú artisans, for example, continued to wear earrings after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, only local leaders wore them. ==== Ceramics and metalwork ==== Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature, but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork. In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including flutes, pan-pipes and trumpets made of shell and ceramics. The Inca made beautiful objects of gold. But precious metals were in much shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from Chimú art and in fact the best metal workers of Chan Chan were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of Chimor was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of ''qompi'' cloth. === Religion === ''Main article: Tahuantinsuyu,_Religion'' ''Other article: Inca mythology'' The Tahuantinsuyu,_Religion was pantheist (sun god, earth goddess, corn god, etc.). Subjects of the empire were allowed to worship their ancestral gods as long as they accepted the supremacy of Inti, the sun god, which was the most important god worshipped by the Inca leadership. Consequently, ayllus (extended families) and city-states integrated into the empire were able to continue to worship their ancestral gods, though with reduced status. Much of the contact between the upper and lower classes was religious in nature and consisted of intricate ceremonies that sometimes lasted from sunrise to sunset. === Medicine === The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain. The Chasqui (messengers) ate coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Recent research by Erasmus University and Medical Center workers Sewbalak and Van Der Wijk showed that, contrary to popular belief, the Inca people were not addicted to the coca substance. Another remedy was to cover boiled bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm. === Burial practices === The Inca believed in reincarnation. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama qhilla'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth. The Inca also believed in mummy prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the pacarina. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or mallqui would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the huacas. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position. One such example was the 500-year-old mummy “''Juanita'' the Ice Maiden,” a girl very well-preserved in ice that was discovered at 20,000 feet, near the summit of Mt. Ampato in Southern Peru. Her burial included many items left as offerings to the Inca gods. === Other practices === The Inca practiced cranial deformation. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers from [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ The Field Museum] believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ongoing.html] === Food and farming === It is estimated that the Inca cultivated around seventy crop species. The main crops were potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, chili peppers, cotton, tomatoes, peanuts, an edible root called oca, and a grain known as quinoa. The many important crops developed by the Inca makes South America one of the historic centers of crop diversity (along with the Middle East, Mesoamerica, Ethiopia, and the Far East). Many of these crops were widely distributed by the Spanish and are now important crops worldwide. The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and in the lowland Amazon rainforest. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of terraced fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow, but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple digging sticks. The Inca also raised llamas and alpacas for their wool and meat and to use them as pack animals, and captured wild vicuñas for their fine hair. The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through El Niño years in style while neighboring civilizations suffered. Inca leaders kept records of what each ''ayllu'' in the empire produced, but did not tax them on their production. They instead used the ''mita'' for the support of the empire. The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish and vegetables, supplemented less frequently with the meat of guinea piges (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was used to make chicha, a fermented beverage. == See also == * Cultural periods of Peru * History of Peru * Spanish conquest of Peru * El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega == References == * ''Conquest of the Incas''. John Hemming, 1970. * ''Andean Worlds''. Kenneth Andrien, 2001. * ''Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca''. Rebecca Stone-Miller, 1995. == External links == *[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno] by Guaman Poma (published 1615 CE) *[http://www.kellscraft.com/IncaLand/incalandscontents.html Inca Land] by Hiram Bingham III (published 1912-1922 CE) *[http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/tupac_amaru.html Tupac Amaru], the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca. *[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Incan_Geometry_Initial.html Inca Geometry] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas. *[http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-civilizations.html Inca civilization] and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil. Former countries South American history Inca History of Peru Pre-Columbian cultures
== "Cusco" or "Cuzco" == Cusco seems to be used much more often than Cuzco. Perhaps all mentions of "Cuzco" should be changed? -- (left unsigned by User:Dynamax) :In Spanish, and most European languages Cusco is correct. However, in English, Cuzco is correct, I've made this mistake myself. Please change any instances of "Cusco" that you see to "Cuzco". -- User:Zenyu 02:11, Mar 22, 2005 (UTC) :This would also include the Wikipedia page on the city of Cusco itself; currently it is 'Cusco'. --User:Bletch 02:42, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC) == "Inca or "Incan" == The use of "Inca" or "Incan" as adjective seems inconsistent. For instance, the article has "Incan Emperor" and "Inca planned economy". Should everything be changed to "Inca"? Or is there some kind of rule to determine usage? User:WpZurp 16:30, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC) :In Spanish, the adjective for something Inca is "incaico". My Collins Spanish-English dictionary translates "incaico" as "Inca", which corresponds with my hunch. I think we can get rid of "Incan" as an adjective. == Location at Inca Empire vs Tahuantinsuyu == I think Inca or Incan empire is the proper english name, Tahuantinsuyu is the local name. I think the article should go with the english name. -- User:Chris 73 User talk:Chris 73 04:03, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC) I think both Tahuantinsuyu and Inca Empire are ok, I'm abstaining on this one. But it seems that 'Incan' is not correct. See first comment at top of this page in reference to "Incan". User:Gsd97jks 13:37, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC) ''Tahuantinsuyu'' was the name of the country. Westerners called it the "Inca empire" because it was large. Wikipedia's own empire article wouldn't classify the "Inca empire" as having a classical imperial political structure. But of course, the common meaning of empire as a sovereign entity created through conquest and/or intimidation still applies. But even if we think of it as an empire, calling it the Inca Empire is like calling the United States of America, "President Empire". Or calling the old British Empire, "Queen Empire". Or calling the First French Empire under Napoleon, "Emperor Empire"... :More like Pharaoh Empire. But Inca is now used for the inhabitants, not only the top leaders. Also Byzantine Empire#The name \"Byzantine Empire\" is a modern name, we don't title the article Roman Empire as they styled themselves.--User:Error 02:48, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC) I don't think using "Inca empire" is necessarily wrong when casually referring to Tahuantinsuyu, as in a link. Just like there is nothing wrong with using ''American Empire'' or ''Napoleonic Empire'' to refer to the ''United States of America'' and ''First French Empire'', resp. But we wouldn't write the main page about the ''United States or America'' under the title "American Empire". When talking about the 16th century country on it's own page, we should use its name or a well known anglicization (Ísland -> Iceland, Deutschland -> Germany, etc.) The anglicization "Tawantinsuyu" exists but it's used much less often in the English literature than the Quechua and Spanish "Tahuantinsuyu". So ''Tahuantinsuyu'' is the proper name for the page, like First French Empire is for the "''Napoleonic Empire''". But ''Inca Empire'' is also a proper alternate way to refer to the empire, just like ''Napoleonic Empire'' is a proper alternative way to refer to the ''First French Empire'' and should remain as a redirect. --User:Zenyu 14:31, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC) :I would prefer ''Inca empire'', since ''Inca'' is much well known in the english language, and give about ten times the google hits than Tahuantinsuyu. But I can live with a majority decision either way. The one thing i insist on is that any move of a page is done properly, and not with a cut/copy from one article to the other. The history of all previous edits should be maintained. The previous move was a cut/copy job and all the edit history stayed with the old redirect. -- User:Chris 73 User talk:Chris 73 09:51, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC) :Tawantinsuyu or Inka Empire are better terms. I would support changing the spelling of Inca and Incan to Inka and Incan in all cases, as well as instances of "hua" to "wa" (Tahuantinsuyo->Tawantinsuyu). This non-Spanish orthography seems to be the preferred one in contemporary history writings. User:D.E. Cottrell 05:51, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC) :I have a bunch of modern and old books using Tahuantinsuyu, both Tawantinsuyo and Tahuantinsuyo seem much less common, and are mostly present on the web (I've seen Tawantinsuyu in a book however, so maybe a change is happening?) And we already went through the whole "Inca" vs. "Incan" as the adjective. Inca seems to sound better to native English speakers and since both are proper we went with Inca. As for "Inka" with a "k", this is hardly ever used in English. What we need is a template explaining why there are all these different spellings, then we can place some standardized explanation at the bottom of each page containing a Quechua terms. --User:Zenyu 01:20, Jan 5, 2005 (UTC) ::BTW I'm going to close the renaming debate in a couple days, there isn't enough interest and people seem happy enough with "Inca Empire". We do need to do some work on the article however, not having a map of the four provinces of the empire is terrible. Having a political map with all the different incorporated city states would be even better, of course.... --User:Zenyu 01:20, Jan 5, 2005 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I'm going to have to disagree (though it is a futile thing, I know). Tawantinsuyu does fit the definition of an empire given in the Wikipedia article in that it was a multi-ethnic state governed from a central location (Qusqu/Qosqo/Cuzco), through various means. It was just as much an empire as the Persian one Alexander conquered. As for the "Inka" with a "k," in National Geographic's most recent issue on the Inka, the fold out map explained that Inka is the preferred academic spelling these days, but they use Inca anyway because people are more familiar with it (which to me is quite lame in that it assumes that its readers not familiar with this spelling are of such a mental calibre that they either cannot comprehend or tolerate the new spelling). It is a matter of taste, but I say why not. We have updated terms in English over the past 50-100 years (ie, "Negroe"-> "Black" or "African-American"), and spelling as well (ie, Rumania->Romania, Servia->Serbia, et cetera). Basically, I am in favor of de-Hispanized/current academic transliterations and terminology. Sigh. Okay, schpiel over. User:D.E. Cottrell 07:18, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Clothing and forced relocation of conquered peoples == Found this in the Clothing section and am moving it here. I don't know who wrote it. User:Mona-Lynn 09:21, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC) -- Note: those forcibly relocated had to wear the clothing of their origin so that they would not be integrated into their new community. This should be discussed, but we may need a separate section just on the forced relocation of former enwmies, as avoidance of this was one of the reasons so many people did not fight the Inca army. -- ==Smallpox== I took out the part about smallpox being Huayna Capac's killer because I found this, http://www.hist.umn.edu/~rmccaa/aha2004/, which is an academic investigation calling that theory into question. User:Mona-Lynn 08:38, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC) == 'The Inca' or 'The Incas' ? == I know as a fact that most peruvians refer to the Inca civilization as "The Incas" and not "The Inca." Most articles on the web also refer to them as the "The Incas" with an S. Unless anybody has any objections the 'S' should be added in front of "Inca" when used with a "The" throughout this article. -- (left unsigned by User:Dynamax) :In Spanish you always add an s to a word to make it plural, but English has some words such as "deer", "aircraft", and "Inca" that use the same word for the plural and the singular. Note: Inca is not a word known by most English speakers so, unlike "deer", it has become corrupted so that "The Incas" is sometimes used in English to refer to the people living in the Inca empire (such as the Chimu or the Chachapoyas), to Quechua speakers, to the descendants of people of the Cuzco Kingdom, or to the Inca royalty, as opposed to the Supa Inca. -- User:Zenyu 02:11, Mar 22, 2005 (UTC) == Incas and Malaria == ''The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They used quinine to treat malaria'' Can we get a source on this? According to the book ''Plagues and Peoples'' by William McNeill, malaria was not present in the Americas until brought over after 1492. Here is a paragraph from the book (p 220): :''As far as malaria is concerned, the most telling argument rests on studies of the distribution of human genetic traits associated with the tolerance of malarial infection. These appear to have been entirely absent from Amerindian populations. Similarly, malarial parasites that infect wild monkeys of the New World appear to be identical with those of the Old'' Of course, this could mean that had quinine and used it (either before or after the Spanish conquest) to treat malaria when malaria arrived. In that case, some clarification could be warranted. --User:Bletch 00:17, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC) == Spaniards or Spanish? == I've also been noticing throughout various Peruvian-related articles that some wikipedians have been using "Spaniards" while others continue with "Spanish". I think everyone must reach a consensus as to what word to use in every article, especially those related to the conquest and history of Peru. State your opinions. :I generally hear the term "Spaniard" to describe individuals (e.g. "A house owned by a Spaniard"), whereas "Spanish" is more of a pure adjective (e.g. "A Spanish house".) --User:Bletch 23:09, 26 Mar 2005 (UTC)
#REDIRECT Inca Empire
See other meanings of words starting from letter:
Words begining with Inca_Empire:
Inca_Empire
Inca_Empire
Inca_empire
Inca Empire
: ''For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation).'' The Inca Empire (called Tawantinsuyu in Changes in spelling of Indian names Aymara and Quechua, or Tahuantinsuyu in old spelling Quechua, which means Land of the Four Corners), was an empire located in South America from 1438 CE to 1533 CE. Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the Andes mountain ranges. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by 1533 CE, Atahualpa, the last Inca, was killed on the orders of the Conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas hegemony. The official language of Tahuantinsuyu was Quechua, although over seven hundred local languages were spoken. The Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their gods, the foremost of which was Inti, the sun god. [[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|290px|right|A view of Machu Picchu, "the Lost City of the Incas," now an archaelogical site.]] The meaning of the phrase ''tawantin suyu'' in Quechua is "the four regions between", which referred to the four provinces whose corners met at the empire's capital, Cusco (Qosqo). The foreign name Inca Empire is derived from the word Inca, which means "Emperor." Today the word Inca still refers to the emperor, but can also refer to the people or the civilization, and is used as an adjective when referring to the beliefs of the people or the artifacts they left behind. == Origin stories == ''See also: Inca mythology'' The Inca had two origin beliefs. In one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in Pacaritambo sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, Sinchi Roca was born to Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, and Sinchi Roca is the person who finally led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as Manco Capac. In the other origin myth, the sun god Inti ordered Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo to emerge from the depths of Lake Titicaca and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established Sapa Inca, or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco. We know of these myths mostly by means of oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence can be supported historically. == Emergence and Expansion == The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century CE. Under the leadership of Manco Capac, they formed the small city-state of Qosqo, or Cuzco in Spanish. In 1438 CE, under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti, they began their conquest of the Andean regions of South America and adjacent lands. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included what are now Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and also extended into portions of what are now Chile, Argentina and Colombia. Pachacuti reorganized Cuzco into the Tahuantinsuyu. The Tahuantinsuyu was a federation which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with powerful leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. The land Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the thirteen colonies of the United States in 1776, and consisted of nearly the entire Andes mountain range. Tahuantinsuyu as of 1463 CE is shown in red on the map. Pachacuti is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a Camp David-like retreat. Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a ''fait accompli'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Pachacuti's son, Túpac Inca, conquered even more land, most importantly the Kindom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia. Huayna Cápac added some land area though less than his father and grandfather. Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the Chimú used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the disability and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the Chachapoya that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish. == Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba == ''Main article: Spanish conquest of Peru'' In 1532, when Spanish explorers led by Francisco Pizarro arrived on the coast of Peru, the empire stretched as far north as present-day Colombia and as far south as Chile and Argentina. However, a war of succession and unrest among newly-conquered territories had already considerably weakened the empire. Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with fewer than 200 men and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. However, many people joined Pizarro's army on the way, increasing the force to several thousand. The Inca fought fiercely against the Spanish conquistadors, but could not simultaneously face the technology of the Spanish (particularly firearms and cannon) and rebellion among subject tribes. Cuzco was definitively lost in 1536. The Inca leadership retreated to the mountain regions of Vilcabamba, where it remained for over another thirty years. In 1572, the last of the Inca rulers, Túpac Amaru, was beheaded and Tahuantinsuyu officially came to an end. == After the Spanish conquest == After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spanish used the Inca Mita_%28Inca%29 (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement. The major languages of the empire, Quechua language and Aymara language, were employed by the Catholic Church to evangelize in the Andean region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages. The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the 1780 rebellion led by Tupac Amaru II against the Spanish, as well as contemporary the guerrilla movements Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) and Sendero Luminoso in Peru and Tupamaros in Uruguay. Tawantinsuyu has a modern rainbow flag which is displayed throughout Peru. == Society == === Political organization of the empire === [[Image:Ollantaytambo.jpg|thumb|200px|''Ollantaytambo'' constituted an administrative, religious, agricultural and military complex for the Incas]] The most powerful figure in the empire was the Sapa Inca (emperor), or simply Inca. When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Inca education (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education. The Tahuantinsuyu was a federation which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Qontisuyu (SW), and Qollasuyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the Mita_%28Inca%29 (mandatory public service). The four provincial governors were called ''apos''. The next rank down, the ''t'oqrikoq'' (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration: {| |- align=right !Level name !!Mita payers |- align=right |Hunu kuraqa ||10000 |- align=right |Waranqa kuraqa ||1000 |- align=right |Pachaka Kuraqa ||100 |- align=right |Chunka kamayuq ||10 |} Every five ''waranqa curaca'', ''pachaka curaca'', and ''chunka kamayuq'' had a intermediary to the next level called, respectively, ''picqa waranqa curaca'', ''picqa pacaka curaca'', and ''picqa conka kamayoq''. This means that the middle managers managed either two or five people, while the ''conka kamayoq'' (at the worker manager level) and the ''apos'' and ''t'oqrikoq'' (in upper management) each had about 20 people reporting to them. The descendants of the original Inca tribe were not numerous enough to administer their empire without help. To cope with the need for leadership at all levels the Inca established a civil service system. Boys at age of 13 and girls at age of first menstruation had their intelligence tested by the local Inca officials. If they failed, their ayllu (extended family group) would teach them one of many trades, such as farming, gold working, weaving, or military skills. If they passed the test, they were sent to Cuzco to attend school to become administrators. There they learned to read the quipu (knotted cord records) and were taught Inca iconography, leadership skills, religion, and, most importantly, mathematics. The graduates of this school constituted the nobility and were expected to marry within that nobility. While some workers were held in great esteem, such as royal goldsmiths and weavers, they could never themselves enter the ruling classes. The best they could hope for was that their children might pass the exam as adolescents to enter the civil service. Although workers were considered the lowest social class, they were entitled to a modicum of what today we call due process, and all classes were equally subject to the rule of law. For example, if a worker was accused of stealing and the charges were proven false, the local official could be punished for not doing his job properly. === Arts === The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of Huari and Tiwanaku arts. ====Architecture==== Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the Tiwanaku. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cusco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that strike the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once. The Inca also sculpted the natural surroundings themselves. One could easily think that a rock along an Inca road system is completely natural, except if one sees it at the right time of year when the sun casts a stunning shadow, betraying its synthetic form. The Inca rope bridges were also used to transport messages and materials by chasqui running messengers. The Inca also adopted the terraced agriculture that the previous Huari civilization had popularized. But they did not use the terraces solely for food production. At the Inca ''tambo'', or inn, at Ollantaytambo the terraces were planted with flowers, extraordinary in this parched land. The terraces of Moray were left unirrigated in a desert area and seem to have been solely decorative. The Inca provincial thrones were often carved into natural outcroppings, and there were over 360 natural springs in the areas surrounding Cusco, such as the one at Tambo Machay. At Tambo Machay the natural rock was sculpted and stonework was added, creating alcoves and directing the water into fountains. These pseudo-natural carvings functioned to show both the Inca's respect for nature and their command over it. ==== Clothing ==== Inca officials wore stylized tunics that indicated their status. The tunic displayed here is the highest status tunic known to exist today. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white checkerboard pattern topped with a red triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the Inca army. Some of the motifs make reference to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the Huari and the three step stairstep motif of the Moche. In this royal tunic, no two squares are exactly the same. Cloth was divided into three classes. ''Awaska'' was used for household use and had a threadcount of about 120 threads per inch. Finer cloth was called ''qunpi'' and was divided into two classes. The first, woven by male ''qunpikamayuq'' (keepers of fine cloth), was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade, to adorn rulers and to be given as gifts to political allies and subjects to cement loyalty. The other class of ''qunpi'' ranked highest. It was woven by ''aqlla'' (female virgins of the sun god temple) and used solely for royal and religious use. These had threadcounts of 600 or more per inch, unexcelled anywhere in the world until the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a ''llawt'u'', a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca Atahualpa commissioned a ''llawt'u'' woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each ayllu, or extended family, had its own headdress. In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of Chan Chan, were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave ''qunpi''. (The Chimu had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from Sican.) The wearing of jewellery was not uniform throughout the empire. Chimú artisans, for example, continued to wear earrings after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, only local leaders wore them. ==== Ceramics and metalwork ==== Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature, but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork. In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including flutes, pan-pipes and trumpets made of shell and ceramics. The Inca made beautiful objects of gold. But precious metals were in much shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from Chimú art and in fact the best metal workers of Chan Chan were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of Chimor was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of ''qompi'' cloth. === Religion === ''Main article: Tahuantinsuyu,_Religion'' ''Other article: Inca mythology'' The Tahuantinsuyu,_Religion was pantheist (sun god, earth goddess, corn god, etc.). Subjects of the empire were allowed to worship their ancestral gods as long as they accepted the supremacy of Inti, the sun god, which was the most important god worshipped by the Inca leadership. Consequently, ayllus (extended families) and city-states integrated into the empire were able to continue to worship their ancestral gods, though with reduced status. Much of the contact between the upper and lower classes was religious in nature and consisted of intricate ceremonies that sometimes lasted from sunrise to sunset. === Medicine === The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain. The Chasqui (messengers) ate coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Recent research by Erasmus University and Medical Center workers Sewbalak and Van Der Wijk showed that, contrary to popular belief, the Inca people were not addicted to the coca substance. Another remedy was to cover boiled bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm. === Burial practices === The Inca believed in reincarnation. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama qhilla'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth. The Inca also believed in mummy prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the pacarina. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or mallqui would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the huacas. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position. One such example was the 500-year-old mummy “''Juanita'' the Ice Maiden,” a girl very well-preserved in ice that was discovered at 20,000 feet, near the summit of Mt. Ampato in Southern Peru. Her burial included many items left as offerings to the Inca gods. === Other practices === The Inca practiced cranial deformation. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers from [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ The Field Museum] believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ongoing.html] === Food and farming === It is estimated that the Inca cultivated around seventy crop species. The main crops were potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, chili peppers, cotton, tomatoes, peanuts, an edible root called oca, and a grain known as quinoa. The many important crops developed by the Inca makes South America one of the historic centers of crop diversity (along with the Middle East, Mesoamerica, Ethiopia, and the Far East). Many of these crops were widely distributed by the Spanish and are now important crops worldwide. The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and in the lowland Amazon rainforest. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of terraced fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow, but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple digging sticks. The Inca also raised llamas and alpacas for their wool and meat and to use them as pack animals, and captured wild vicuñas for their fine hair. The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through El Niño years in style while neighboring civilizations suffered. Inca leaders kept records of what each ''ayllu'' in the empire produced, but did not tax them on their production. They instead used the ''mita'' for the support of the empire. The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish and vegetables, supplemented less frequently with the meat of guinea piges (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was used to make chicha, a fermented beverage. == See also == * Cultural periods of Peru * History of Peru * Spanish conquest of Peru * El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega == References == * ''Conquest of the Incas''. John Hemming, 1970. * ''Andean Worlds''. Kenneth Andrien, 2001. * ''Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca''. Rebecca Stone-Miller, 1995. == External links == *[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno] by Guaman Poma (published 1615 CE) *[http://www.kellscraft.com/IncaLand/incalandscontents.html Inca Land] by Hiram Bingham III (published 1912-1922 CE) *[http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/tupac_amaru.html Tupac Amaru], the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca. *[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Incan_Geometry_Initial.html Inca Geometry] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas. *[http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-civilizations.html Inca civilization] and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil. Former countries South American history Inca History of Peru Pre-Columbian cultures
Inca Empire
== "Cusco" or "Cuzco" == Cusco seems to be used much more often than Cuzco. Perhaps all mentions of "Cuzco" should be changed? -- (left unsigned by User:Dynamax) :In Spanish, and most European languages Cusco is correct. However, in English, Cuzco is correct, I've made this mistake myself. Please change any instances of "Cusco" that you see to "Cuzco". -- User:Zenyu 02:11, Mar 22, 2005 (UTC) :This would also include the Wikipedia page on the city of Cusco itself; currently it is 'Cusco'. --User:Bletch 02:42, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC) == "Inca or "Incan" == The use of "Inca" or "Incan" as adjective seems inconsistent. For instance, the article has "Incan Emperor" and "Inca planned economy". Should everything be changed to "Inca"? Or is there some kind of rule to determine usage? User:WpZurp 16:30, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC) :In Spanish, the adjective for something Inca is "incaico". My Collins Spanish-English dictionary translates "incaico" as "Inca", which corresponds with my hunch. I think we can get rid of "Incan" as an adjective. == Location at Inca Empire vs Tahuantinsuyu == I think Inca or Incan empire is the proper english name, Tahuantinsuyu is the local name. I think the article should go with the english name. -- User:Chris 73 User talk:Chris 73 04:03, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC) I think both Tahuantinsuyu and Inca Empire are ok, I'm abstaining on this one. But it seems that 'Incan' is not correct. See first comment at top of this page in reference to "Incan". User:Gsd97jks 13:37, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC) ''Tahuantinsuyu'' was the name of the country. Westerners called it the "Inca empire" because it was large. Wikipedia's own empire article wouldn't classify the "Inca empire" as having a classical imperial political structure. But of course, the common meaning of empire as a sovereign entity created through conquest and/or intimidation still applies. But even if we think of it as an empire, calling it the Inca Empire is like calling the United States of America, "President Empire". Or calling the old British Empire, "Queen Empire". Or calling the First French Empire under Napoleon, "Emperor Empire"... :More like Pharaoh Empire. But Inca is now used for the inhabitants, not only the top leaders. Also Byzantine Empire#The name \"Byzantine Empire\" is a modern name, we don't title the article Roman Empire as they styled themselves.--User:Error 02:48, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC) I don't think using "Inca empire" is necessarily wrong when casually referring to Tahuantinsuyu, as in a link. Just like there is nothing wrong with using ''American Empire'' or ''Napoleonic Empire'' to refer to the ''United States of America'' and ''First French Empire'', resp. But we wouldn't write the main page about the ''United States or America'' under the title "American Empire". When talking about the 16th century country on it's own page, we should use its name or a well known anglicization (Ísland -> Iceland, Deutschland -> Germany, etc.) The anglicization "Tawantinsuyu" exists but it's used much less often in the English literature than the Quechua and Spanish "Tahuantinsuyu". So ''Tahuantinsuyu'' is the proper name for the page, like First French Empire is for the "''Napoleonic Empire''". But ''Inca Empire'' is also a proper alternate way to refer to the empire, just like ''Napoleonic Empire'' is a proper alternative way to refer to the ''First French Empire'' and should remain as a redirect. --User:Zenyu 14:31, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC) :I would prefer ''Inca empire'', since ''Inca'' is much well known in the english language, and give about ten times the google hits than Tahuantinsuyu. But I can live with a majority decision either way. The one thing i insist on is that any move of a page is done properly, and not with a cut/copy from one article to the other. The history of all previous edits should be maintained. The previous move was a cut/copy job and all the edit history stayed with the old redirect. -- User:Chris 73 User talk:Chris 73 09:51, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC) :Tawantinsuyu or Inka Empire are better terms. I would support changing the spelling of Inca and Incan to Inka and Incan in all cases, as well as instances of "hua" to "wa" (Tahuantinsuyo->Tawantinsuyu). This non-Spanish orthography seems to be the preferred one in contemporary history writings. User:D.E. Cottrell 05:51, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC) :I have a bunch of modern and old books using Tahuantinsuyu, both Tawantinsuyo and Tahuantinsuyo seem much less common, and are mostly present on the web (I've seen Tawantinsuyu in a book however, so maybe a change is happening?) And we already went through the whole "Inca" vs. "Incan" as the adjective. Inca seems to sound better to native English speakers and since both are proper we went with Inca. As for "Inka" with a "k", this is hardly ever used in English. What we need is a template explaining why there are all these different spellings, then we can place some standardized explanation at the bottom of each page containing a Quechua terms. --User:Zenyu 01:20, Jan 5, 2005 (UTC) ::BTW I'm going to close the renaming debate in a couple days, there isn't enough interest and people seem happy enough with "Inca Empire". We do need to do some work on the article however, not having a map of the four provinces of the empire is terrible. Having a political map with all the different incorporated city states would be even better, of course.... --User:Zenyu 01:20, Jan 5, 2005 (UTC) :I'm afraid that I'm going to have to disagree (though it is a futile thing, I know). Tawantinsuyu does fit the definition of an empire given in the Wikipedia article in that it was a multi-ethnic state governed from a central location (Qusqu/Qosqo/Cuzco), through various means. It was just as much an empire as the Persian one Alexander conquered. As for the "Inka" with a "k," in National Geographic's most recent issue on the Inka, the fold out map explained that Inka is the preferred academic spelling these days, but they use Inca anyway because people are more familiar with it (which to me is quite lame in that it assumes that its readers not familiar with this spelling are of such a mental calibre that they either cannot comprehend or tolerate the new spelling). It is a matter of taste, but I say why not. We have updated terms in English over the past 50-100 years (ie, "Negroe"-> "Black" or "African-American"), and spelling as well (ie, Rumania->Romania, Servia->Serbia, et cetera). Basically, I am in favor of de-Hispanized/current academic transliterations and terminology. Sigh. Okay, schpiel over. User:D.E. Cottrell 07:18, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Clothing and forced relocation of conquered peoples == Found this in the Clothing section and am moving it here. I don't know who wrote it. User:Mona-Lynn 09:21, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC) -- Note: those forcibly relocated had to wear the clothing of their origin so that they would not be integrated into their new community. This should be discussed, but we may need a separate section just on the forced relocation of former enwmies, as avoidance of this was one of the reasons so many people did not fight the Inca army. -- ==Smallpox== I took out the part about smallpox being Huayna Capac's killer because I found this, http://www.hist.umn.edu/~rmccaa/aha2004/, which is an academic investigation calling that theory into question. User:Mona-Lynn 08:38, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC) == 'The Inca' or 'The Incas' ? == I know as a fact that most peruvians refer to the Inca civilization as "The Incas" and not "The Inca." Most articles on the web also refer to them as the "The Incas" with an S. Unless anybody has any objections the 'S' should be added in front of "Inca" when used with a "The" throughout this article. -- (left unsigned by User:Dynamax) :In Spanish you always add an s to a word to make it plural, but English has some words such as "deer", "aircraft", and "Inca" that use the same word for the plural and the singular. Note: Inca is not a word known by most English speakers so, unlike "deer", it has become corrupted so that "The Incas" is sometimes used in English to refer to the people living in the Inca empire (such as the Chimu or the Chachapoyas), to Quechua speakers, to the descendants of people of the Cuzco Kingdom, or to the Inca royalty, as opposed to the Supa Inca. -- User:Zenyu 02:11, Mar 22, 2005 (UTC) == Incas and Malaria == ''The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They used quinine to treat malaria'' Can we get a source on this? According to the book ''Plagues and Peoples'' by William McNeill, malaria was not present in the Americas until brought over after 1492. Here is a paragraph from the book (p 220): :''As far as malaria is concerned, the most telling argument rests on studies of the distribution of human genetic traits associated with the tolerance of malarial infection. These appear to have been entirely absent from Amerindian populations. Similarly, malarial parasites that infect wild monkeys of the New World appear to be identical with those of the Old'' Of course, this could mean that had quinine and used it (either before or after the Spanish conquest) to treat malaria when malaria arrived. In that case, some clarification could be warranted. --User:Bletch 00:17, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC) == Spaniards or Spanish? == I've also been noticing throughout various Peruvian-related articles that some wikipedians have been using "Spaniards" while others continue with "Spanish". I think everyone must reach a consensus as to what word to use in every article, especially those related to the conquest and history of Peru. State your opinions. :I generally hear the term "Spaniard" to describe individuals (e.g. "A house owned by a Spaniard"), whereas "Spanish" is more of a pure adjective (e.g. "A Spanish house".) --User:Bletch 23:09, 26 Mar 2005 (UTC)
Inca empire
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