
:''This article is about the Roman professional fighter. For other uses of the word, see gladiator (disambiguation).'' [[Image:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Pollice Verso'', an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painting's researched conception of a gladiatorial combat.]] Gladiators (Latin ''gladiatores'') were professional fighters in ancient Rome who fought against each other and against wild animals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of spectators. These fights took place in arenas in many cities during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. The word comes from ''gladius'', the Latin word for a short sword used by legionnaires and some gladiators. ===Ancient Roman gladiators=== The gladiatorial games were originally established by the Etruscan civilization, but were later adopted by the Roman as a means of entertainment. The Etruscans believed when an important man died his spirit needed a blood sacrifice to survive in the after life (Nardo, Games of 21). The first recorded gladiatorial combats took place in Rome in 264 BC. Decimus Junius Brutus staged it in honor of his dead father. It was held between three pairs of slaves, and held in the Forum Boarium. The ceremony was called a munus or “duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the attention of keeping alive his memory” (Baker, Gladiator 10). These were held for notable people and were repeated every one to five years after the person’s death. Public spectacles (called ''munera'', singular ''munus'') took place in amphitheatres (like the Colosseum) and took the latter half of the day after the fights against animals (''venationes'') and public executions (''noxii''). Initially rich private individuals organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The person who organized the show was called the ''editor'', ''munerator'', or ''dominus'' and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate. Later the emperors would exert a near complete monopoly on staging public entertainment which included chariot racing in the circus (''ludi circenses''), hunts of wild animals, public executions, theatrical performances (''ludi scaenici'') and gladiator fights. There was usually musical accompaniment. Gladiators were typically picked from prisoners of war, slaves, and sentenced criminals. There were also occasional volunteers. They were trained in special gladiator schools (''ludi''). One of the largest schools was in Ravenna. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the ''Ludus Magnus''. The ''Ludus Magnus'' was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Gladiators often belonged to a troupe (''familia'') that traveled from town to town. A trainer of gladiators or the manager of a team of gladiators was known as a lanista. The troupe's owner rented gladiators to whoever wanted to stage games. A gladiator would typically fight no more than three times per year. It should be noted that fights were not generally to the death during the Republic, although gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally. Gladiators could be also the property of a wealthy individual who would hire ''lanistae'' to train them. Several senators and emperors had their own favorites. Criminals were either expected to die within a year (''ad gladium'') or might earn their release after three years (''ad ludum'') — if they survived. Different gladiators specialized in different weapons, and it was popular to pair off combatants with widely different equipment. Gladiator types and their weaponry included: * ''Andabatae'': Fought with visored helmet and possibly blindfolded and on horseback. * ''Cimachaeri'': Carried two short swords (the gladius) * ''Bestiari'': Fought against beasts, usually with spears. * ''Equites'': Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a ''manica (armour)'' * ''Essedari'': Charioteers in Celtic style. * ''Hoplomachi'': Fully armored, based on Greece hoplites. They wore a helmet with a stylized griffin on the crest, woollen leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a gladius and a small, round shield, and were paired with mirmillones or Thraces. They apparently became Samnites later. * ''Laquerii'': Lasso Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries * ''Murmillo'' (or ''murmillones''): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest, as well as a ''manica''. They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were paired with hoplomachi or Thraces. * ''Provocatores'': Fought with the Samnites but their armament is unknown (might have been variable, hence the term "provocators") * ''Retiarius'': Carried a trident, a dagger, and a net, and had at least naked torso, no helmet, and a larger manica. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones. * ''Samnites'': Carried a long rectangular shield, visor, plumed helmet and short sword. The name came from the Samnites of the same name Romans had conquered. * ''Secutor'': Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius, however, they wore a helmet with only two eye-holes. They were the usual opponents of retiarii. * ''Thraces'': Had the same armour and weapons as hoplomachi, but instead had a round shield and also carried a curved dagger. Their name came from Thracians, and they commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi. Murmillo'').">Image:GladiatorFeldflasche.jpg|thumb|A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between two gladiators (''Murmillo''). Gladiators usually fought in pairs (''Ordinarii''), that is, one gladiator against another. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (''Catervarii'') or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the established troupe (''Postulaticii''). Sometimes lanista had to rely on substitutes (''supposititii'') if requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. Emperor could have his own gladiators (''Fiscales''). At the end of a fight, when one gladiator acknowledged defeat by raising a finger, the audience could decide whether the loser should live or die. It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed, but it is not clear which way they pointed. It is possible that they pointed their thumbs upwards if they wanted the loser to live, and downwards if they wanted him to die; or, they may have done the opposite, pointing downwards if they wanted the gladiator to live. Another possibility is that they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to signify death. A gladiator did not have to die after every match - if the audience felt both men fought admirably, they would likely want both to live and fight for their amusement in the future. A gladiator who won several fights was allowed to retire, often to train other fighters. Gladiators who managed to win their freedom - often by request of the audience or sponsor - were given a wooden sword as a memento. The attitude of Romans towards the gladiators was ambivalent: on the one hand they were considered as lower than slaves, but on the other hand some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status. There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy. Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual objects. This may be one reason that many types of gladiators fought bare-chested. It was socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with a gladiator, but Faustina, the mother of the emperor Commodus, was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator (Commodus likely invented this story himself). Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called ''auctorati'') who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had gotten into financial troubles. Their oath (which Seneca the Younger describes as particularly shameful) implied their acceptance of slave status and of the worst public consideration (''infamia''). More famous is their phrase to the emperor or sponsor before the fight: ''Morituri te salutant'' ("Those about to die salute you"). Some Roman Emperors, among them Hadrian, Caligula, Titus and Commodus also entered the arena for (presumably) fictitious or rigged combats. Emperor Trajan organized as many as 5000 gladiator fighting pairs. Gladiator contests could take months to complete. Gaius Marius had gladiators train the legionnaires in single combat. Female gladiators also existed; The Emperor Domitian liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarfs and women, according to Suetonius in "The Twelve Caesars". One of the most famous gladiators was Spartacus who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in 73 BC, was crushed by Marcus Licinius Crassus two years later. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again. The Greek physician Galen worked for a while as a gladiator's physician in Pergamon. Gladiator fights were first outlawed by Constantine I of the Roman Empire in 325 but continued sporadically until about 450. The last known gladiator competition in the city of Rome occurred on January 1, 404. ==Gladiators in modern popular culture== ===Science fiction and fantasy=== Gladiators are sometimes mentioned in science fiction, being depicted in the film ''The Running Man''; as well as the games ''Battletech'', ''Quake computer game'', and ''Unreal''. The Unreal Tournament series is especially notable as a futuristic pro-wrestling take on gladiators. The exploits of gladiators are also typical fare in the sword and sandal genre of fantasy films. ===Reality entertainment=== For obvious human rights and liability reasons, it has been impossible to revive gladiator fights in the historically accurate ''Roman'' sense (where the fight concludes with serious bodily injury or death). In the U.S. during the 1990s, there was a game show called ''American Gladiators'', and around the same time, World Wrestling Entertainment popularized a rather wild style of wrestling which some compared to gladiator combat. However, the competitors on ''American Gladiators'' never directly attacked each other, and the WWE fights have been criticized as staged due to the rare occurrence of severe physical injuries (indeed, the WWE admitted as much in certain lawsuits it was a party to). In California, Corcoran State Prison became infamous in 1997 when it was discovered that the guards were staging informal "gladiator" fights with the prisoners (some of which were videotaped). Such fights differ from true gladiator fights in that they were not state-sponsored or approved. == References == * Thomas Wiedemann: ''Emperors and Gladiators'', Routledge 1992 * [http://itsa.ucsf.edu/~snlrc/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/gladiators.html James Grout: ''Gladiators'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana] *[http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Arena.html Violence and the Romans: The Arena Spectacles] *[http://nefer-seba.net/essays/Spartacus/ The Revolt of Spartacus] A narrative essay. * Daniel P Mannix: "Those About To Die", Ballantine Books, New York 1958 Ancient Rome Defunct occupations Sports occupations la:Gladiator
Heres an article on Gladiators from "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", John Murray, London, 1875. Someone might want to integrate this with the main text. --User:Imran 16:44 Jul 21, 2002 (PDT) ---- GLADIATORES (monomavcoi), were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places for the amusement of the Roman people (Gladiator est, qui in arena, populo spectante, pugnavit, Quintil. Declam. 302). They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased (Tertull. de Spectac. 12; Serv. ad Virg. Aen. x.519). [FUNUS p559a.] A show of gladiators was called munus, and the person who exhibited (edebat) it, editor, munerator, or dominus, who was honoured during the day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of a magistrate (Capitol. M. Anton. Philos. 23; Flor. iii.20; Cic. ad Att. ii.19 §3). Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264, in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their father (Valer. Max. ii.4 §7; Liv. Epit. 16). They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and even at those of women (Suet. Jul. 26; Spartian. Hadr. 9). Private persons sometimes left a sum of money in their will to pay the expenses of such an exhibition at their funerals (Sen. de Brev. Vit. 20). Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments (Athen. iv. p153; Sil. Ital. xi.51), and especially at public festivals by the aediles and other magistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers with the view of pleasing the people (Cic. pro Mur. 18; de Off. ii.16). [AEDILES] Under the empire the passion of the Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest height, and the number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost incredible. After Trajan's triumph over the Dacians, there were more than 10,000 exhibited (Dion. Cass. lxviii.15). Gladiators consisted either of captives (Vopisc. Prob. 19), slaves (Suet. Vitell. 12), and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought voluntarily. Of those who were condemned, some were said to be condemned ad gladium, in which case they were obliged to be killed at least within a year; and others ad ludum, who might obtain their discharge at the end of three years (Ulpian, Collat. Mos. et Rom. Leg. tit.ii, s.7 §4). Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called auctorati (Quint. l.c.; Hor. Sat. ii.7.58), and their hire auctoramentum or gladiatorium ( Suet. Tib. 7; Liv. xliv.31). They also took an oath upon entering the service, which is preserved by Petronius (117): "In verba Eumolpi sacramentum juravimus, uri, vinciri, verberari, ferroque necari, et quicquid aliud Eumolpus jussisset, tamquam legitimi gladiatores domino corpora animasque religiosissime addicimus." (cf. Senec. Epist. 7.) Even under the republic free-born citizens fought as gladiators (Liv. xxviii.21), but they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the empire, however, both equites and senators fought in the arena (Dion Cass. li.22; lvi.25; Suet. Jul. 39; Aug. 43; Ner. 12), and even women (Tacit. Ann. xv.32; Suet. Dom. 4; Juv. vi.250, &c.; Stat. Silv. I.vi.53); which practice was at length forbidden in the time of Severus (Dion Cass. lxxv.16). Gladiators were kept in schools (ludi), where they were trained by persons called lanistae Suet. Jul. 26; Cic. pro Rosc. Amer. 40; Juv. vi.216, xi.8). The whole body of gladiators under one lanista was frequently called familia (Suet. Aug. 42). They sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other times belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of the ludus Aemilius at Rome (Hor. de Art. poet. 32), and of Caesar's ludus at Capua (Caes. Bell. Civ. i.14). The superintendence of the ludi, which belonged to the emperors, was entrusted to a person of high rank, called curator or procurator (Tacit. Ann. xi.35; xiii.22; Suet. Cal. 27; Gruter, Inscr. p489). The gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called rudes (Suet. Cal. 32, 54). Great attention was paid to their diet in order to increase the strength of their bodies, whence Cicero (Phil. ii.23) speaks of "gladiatoria totius corporis firmitas". They were fed with nourishing food, called gladiatoria sagina (Tacit. Hist. ii.88). A great number of gladiators were trained at Ravenna on account of the salubrity of the place (Strabo, v. p213). Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in the amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM] The person who was to exhibit a show of gladiators published some days before the exhibition bills (libelli), containing the number and sometimes the names of those who were to fight (Cic. ad Fam. ii.8; Suet. Caes. 26). When the day came, they were led along the arena in procession, and matched by pairs (Hor. Sat. i.7.20); and their swords were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp (Dion Cass. lxviii.3; Suet. Tit. 9; Lipsius, Excurs. ad Tac. Ann. iii.37). At first there was a kind of sham battle, called praelusio, in which they fought with wooden swords, or the like (Cic. de Orat. ii. 78, 80; Ovid, Ars Amat. iii.515; Senec. Epist. 117), and afterwards at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator was wounded, the people called out habet or hoc habet; and the one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission. His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down their thumbs if they wished him to be killed (Hor. Ep. i.18.66; Juv. iii.36), and ordered him to receive the sword (ferrum recipere), which gladiators usually did with the greatest firmness (Cic. Tusc. ii.17, pro Sext. 37, pro Mil. 34). If the life of a vanquished gladiator was spared, he obtained his discharge for the day, which was called missio (Mart. xii.29.7); and hence in an exhibition of gladiators sine missione (Liv. xli.20), the lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition, however, was forbidden by Augustus (Suet. Aug. 45). Palms were usually given to the victorious gladiators (Suet. Cal. 32); and hence, a gladiator, who had frequently conquered, is called "plurimarum palmarum gladiator" (Cic. pro Rosc. Amer. 6); money also was sometimes given ( Juv. vii.243; Suet. Claud. 21 ). Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by the editor at the request of the people, who presented each of them with a rudis or wooden sword; whence those who were discharged were called Rudiarii (Cic. Philip. ii.29; Hor. Ep. i.1, ; Suet. Tib. 7; Quint. l.c.). If a person was free before he entered the ludus, he became on his discharge free again; and if he had been a slave, he returned to the same condition again. A man, however, who had been a gladiator was always considered to have disgraced himself, and consequently it appears he could not obtain the equestrian rank if he afterwards acquired sufficient property to entitle him to it (Quin. l.c.); and a slave who had been sent into a ludus and there manumitted either by his then owner or another owner, merely acquired the status of a peregrinus dediticius (Gaius, i.13). Shows of gladiators were abolished by Constantine (Cod. 11. tit.43), but appear notwithstanding to have been generally exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally suppressed (Theodoret, Hist. Eccles. v.20). Gladiators were divided into different classes, according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other circumstances. The names of the most important of these classes is given in alphabetical order: *Andabatae (Cic. ad Fam. vii.10), wore helmets without any aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold, and thus excited the mirth of the spectators. Some modern writers say that they fought on horseback, but this is denied by Orelli (Inscr. 2577). *Catervarii was the name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when several fought together (Suet. Aug. 45; gregatim dimicantes, Cal. 30). *Dimacheri appear to have been so called, because they fought with two swords (Artemiod. ii.32; Orelli, Inscr. 2584). *Equites were those who fought on horseback (Orelli, 2569, 2577). *Essedarii fought from chariots like the Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA] They are frequently mentioned in inscriptions (Orelli, 2566, 2584, &c.) *Fiscales were those under the empire, who were trained and supported from the fiscus (Capitol. Gord. 33). *Hoplomachi appear to have been those who fought in a complete suit of armor (Suet. Cal. 35; Martial, viii.74; Orelli, 2566). Lipsius considers them to have been the same with the Samnites, and that this name was disused under the emperors, and hoplomachi substituted for it. *Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries (Isid. xviii.56). *Meridiani were those who fought in the middle of the day, after combats with wild beasts had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly armed (Senec. Epist. 7; Suet. Claud. 34; Orelli, 2587). *Mirmillones are said to have been so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr, mormuvroV) on their helmets (Festus, s.v. Retiario). Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the retiarii or Thracians (Cic. Phil. iii.12, vii.6; Juv. viii.200; Suet. Cal. 32; Orelli, 2566, 2580). *Ordinarii was the name applied to all the regular gladiators, who fought in pairs, in the ordinary way (Senec. Epist. 7; Suet. Aug. 45, Cal. 26). *Postulaticii were such as were demanded by the people from the editor, in addition to those who were exhibited (Senec. l.c.). *Provocatores fought with the Samnites (Cic. pro Sext. 64), but we do not know any thing respecting them except their name. They are mentioned in inscriptions (Orelli, 2566). The probokavtwr mentioned by Artemiodorus (ii.32) appears to be the same as the provocator. *Retiarii carried only a three-pointed lance, called tridens or fuscina [FUSCINA], and a net (rete), which they endeavoured to throw over their adversaries, and then to attack them with the fuscina while they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the net, he betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His adversary was usually a secutor or a mirmillo (Juv. ii.143, viii.204; Suet. Cal. 30; Claud. 34; Orelli, 2578). In the following woodcut, taken from Winckelmann (Monum. Ined. pl. 197), a combat is represented between a retiarius and a mirmillo: the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind the retiarius. *Samnites were so called, because they were armed in the same way as that people, and were particularly distinguished by the oblong scutum (Liv. ix.40; Cic. pro Sext. 64). *Secutores are supposed by some writers to be so called because the secutor in his combat with the retiarius pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net. Other writers think that they were the same as the supposititii, mentioned by Martial (v.24), who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were wearied or were killed (Cal. 30; Juv. viii.210). If the old reading in a letter of Cicero's (ad Att. vii.14) is correct, Julius Caesar had no less than 500 secutores in his rudus at Capua; but it appears probable that we ought to read scutorum instead of secutorum. *Supposititii. See Secutores. *Thraces or Threces were armed like the Thracians with a round shield or buckler (Festus, s.v. Thraeces), and a short sword or dagger (sica, Suet. Cal. 30), which is called falx supina by Juvenal (viii.201). They were usually matched, as already stated, with the mirmillones. ---- ''What above is at:
[http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Gladiatores.html] (copy up to "html") - copyright status seems to need better investigation (see [http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/HELP/Copyright/home.html related policy])''. ---- The definition from the article :''A Gladiator is a low-class infantry soldier, specifically selected for highly risky operations or combats.'' seems to be highly non-standard. Every other source I consulted, including the text above, defines gladiators as Roman entertainment fighters. I will change the article correspondingly. User:AxelBoldt 23:06 Dec 19, 2002 (UTC) ---- I have a question about the thumbs up/down bit... :"If the audience (or sponsor or emperor) wanted that the loser should be killed, they pointed their thumbs downwards. If they wanted him to live, they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it (ie. they did not point upwards as commonly believed)." ::I have also heard (from various teachers and profs, and various books) that they used the thumbs up/down the same way we do, or they used it the opposite way, or no one knows which was which. I have even had two classics profs at UWO give two different explanations (the latter two I listed). Is there actually any consensus? User:Adam Bishop 13:46, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC) :::Roman writers described the gesture as "Pollice verso", literally "turned thumb". But no-one really knows whether this was up, down, or neither. User:Matthewmayer == Disambiguation of Seneca == I've pointed the reference to Seneca to Seneca the Younger, as it seems to be the most likely source. However, I have no particular knowledge here, and it could be a reference to Seneca the Elder. Please, if someone knows for sure, say so here, and correct the article if necessary. -User:Rholton 14:01, 31 Dec 2003 (UTC) ==Odd looking sentence== What does this line mean ? ''"There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy."'' Eaten by who ? User:Jay 08:10, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC) ---- I did my senior resarch paper on the gladiators of rome. I've added some interesting things to this article. :Thanks...but don't delete other comments on the talk page :) User:Adam Bishop 16:21, 12 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Cleanup? == User:Apol0gies, why did you add a cleanup tag to this article? What needs to be cleaned up? User:Adam Bishop 22:09, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC) == The gladius == The gladiator article states that the weapon called "gladius" was used by "some" gladiators, and that the weapon inspired the name of the fighter (...makes sense). The gladius article states that "[c]ontrary to common belief, the gladius was not used by gladiators, who used a version with a shorter blade". Could this please be clarified and fixed? Also, does this shorter weapon have a name, and if the gladius was not used by the gladiators, how did one name inspire the other? Thanks. --User:Liberlogos 22:28, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
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:''This article is about the Roman professional fighter. For other uses of the word, see gladiator (disambiguation).'' [[Image:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Pollice Verso'', an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painting's researched conception of a gladiatorial combat.]] Gladiators (Latin ''gladiatores'') were professional fighters in ancient Rome who fought against each other and against wild animals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of spectators. These fights took place in arenas in many cities during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. The word comes from ''gladius'', the Latin word for a short sword used by legionnaires and some gladiators. ===Ancient Roman gladiators=== The gladiatorial games were originally established by the Etruscan civilization, but were later adopted by the Roman as a means of entertainment. The Etruscans believed when an important man died his spirit needed a blood sacrifice to survive in the after life (Nardo, Games of 21). The first recorded gladiatorial combats took place in Rome in 264 BC. Decimus Junius Brutus staged it in honor of his dead father. It was held between three pairs of slaves, and held in the Forum Boarium. The ceremony was called a munus or “duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the attention of keeping alive his memory” (Baker, Gladiator 10). These were held for notable people and were repeated every one to five years after the person’s death. Public spectacles (called ''munera'', singular ''munus'') took place in amphitheatres (like the Colosseum) and took the latter half of the day after the fights against animals (''venationes'') and public executions (''noxii''). Initially rich private individuals organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The person who organized the show was called the ''editor'', ''munerator'', or ''dominus'' and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate. Later the emperors would exert a near complete monopoly on staging public entertainment which included chariot racing in the circus (''ludi circenses''), hunts of wild animals, public executions, theatrical performances (''ludi scaenici'') and gladiator fights. There was usually musical accompaniment. Gladiators were typically picked from prisoners of war, slaves, and sentenced criminals. There were also occasional volunteers. They were trained in special gladiator schools (''ludi''). One of the largest schools was in Ravenna. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the ''Ludus Magnus''. The ''Ludus Magnus'' was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Gladiators often belonged to a troupe (''familia'') that traveled from town to town. A trainer of gladiators or the manager of a team of gladiators was known as a lanista. The troupe's owner rented gladiators to whoever wanted to stage games. A gladiator would typically fight no more than three times per year. It should be noted that fights were not generally to the death during the Republic, although gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally. Gladiators could be also the property of a wealthy individual who would hire ''lanistae'' to train them. Several senators and emperors had their own favorites. Criminals were either expected to die within a year (''ad gladium'') or might earn their release after three years (''ad ludum'') — if they survived. Different gladiators specialized in different weapons, and it was popular to pair off combatants with widely different equipment. Gladiator types and their weaponry included: * ''Andabatae'': Fought with visored helmet and possibly blindfolded and on horseback. * ''Cimachaeri'': Carried two short swords (the gladius) * ''Bestiari'': Fought against beasts, usually with spears. * ''Equites'': Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a ''manica (armour)'' * ''Essedari'': Charioteers in Celtic style. * ''Hoplomachi'': Fully armored, based on Greece hoplites. They wore a helmet with a stylized griffin on the crest, woollen leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a gladius and a small, round shield, and were paired with mirmillones or Thraces. They apparently became Samnites later. * ''Laquerii'': Lasso Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries * ''Murmillo'' (or ''murmillones''): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest, as well as a ''manica''. They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were paired with hoplomachi or Thraces. * ''Provocatores'': Fought with the Samnites but their armament is unknown (might have been variable, hence the term "provocators") * ''Retiarius'': Carried a trident, a dagger, and a net, and had at least naked torso, no helmet, and a larger manica. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones. * ''Samnites'': Carried a long rectangular shield, visor, plumed helmet and short sword. The name came from the Samnites of the same name Romans had conquered. * ''Secutor'': Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius, however, they wore a helmet with only two eye-holes. They were the usual opponents of retiarii. * ''Thraces'': Had the same armour and weapons as hoplomachi, but instead had a round shield and also carried a curved dagger. Their name came from Thracians, and they commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi. Murmillo'').">Image:GladiatorFeldflasche.jpg|thumb|A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between two gladiators (''Murmillo''). Gladiators usually fought in pairs (''Ordinarii''), that is, one gladiator against another. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (''Catervarii'') or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the established troupe (''Postulaticii''). Sometimes lanista had to rely on substitutes (''supposititii'') if requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. Emperor could have his own gladiators (''Fiscales''). At the end of a fight, when one gladiator acknowledged defeat by raising a finger, the audience could decide whether the loser should live or die. It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed, but it is not clear which way they pointed. It is possible that they pointed their thumbs upwards if they wanted the loser to live, and downwards if they wanted him to die; or, they may have done the opposite, pointing downwards if they wanted the gladiator to live. Another possibility is that they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to signify death. A gladiator did not have to die after every match - if the audience felt both men fought admirably, they would likely want both to live and fight for their amusement in the future. A gladiator who won several fights was allowed to retire, often to train other fighters. Gladiators who managed to win their freedom - often by request of the audience or sponsor - were given a wooden sword as a memento. The attitude of Romans towards the gladiators was ambivalent: on the one hand they were considered as lower than slaves, but on the other hand some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status. There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy. Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual objects. This may be one reason that many types of gladiators fought bare-chested. It was socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with a gladiator, but Faustina, the mother of the emperor Commodus, was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator (Commodus likely invented this story himself). Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called ''auctorati'') who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had gotten into financial troubles. Their oath (which Seneca the Younger describes as particularly shameful) implied their acceptance of slave status and of the worst public consideration (''infamia''). More famous is their phrase to the emperor or sponsor before the fight: ''Morituri te salutant'' ("Those about to die salute you"). Some Roman Emperors, among them Hadrian, Caligula, Titus and Commodus also entered the arena for (presumably) fictitious or rigged combats. Emperor Trajan organized as many as 5000 gladiator fighting pairs. Gladiator contests could take months to complete. Gaius Marius had gladiators train the legionnaires in single combat. Female gladiators also existed; The Emperor Domitian liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarfs and women, according to Suetonius in "The Twelve Caesars". One of the most famous gladiators was Spartacus who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in 73 BC, was crushed by Marcus Licinius Crassus two years later. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again. The Greek physician Galen worked for a while as a gladiator's physician in Pergamon. Gladiator fights were first outlawed by Constantine I of the Roman Empire in 325 but continued sporadically until about 450. The last known gladiator competition in the city of Rome occurred on January 1, 404. ==Gladiators in modern popular culture== ===Science fiction and fantasy=== Gladiators are sometimes mentioned in science fiction, being depicted in the film ''The Running Man''; as well as the games ''Battletech'', ''Quake computer game'', and ''Unreal''. The Unreal Tournament series is especially notable as a futuristic pro-wrestling take on gladiators. The exploits of gladiators are also typical fare in the sword and sandal genre of fantasy films. ===Reality entertainment=== For obvious human rights and liability reasons, it has been impossible to revive gladiator fights in the historically accurate ''Roman'' sense (where the fight concludes with serious bodily injury or death). In the U.S. during the 1990s, there was a game show called ''American Gladiators'', and around the same time, World Wrestling Entertainment popularized a rather wild style of wrestling which some compared to gladiator combat. However, the competitors on ''American Gladiators'' never directly attacked each other, and the WWE fights have been criticized as staged due to the rare occurrence of severe physical injuries (indeed, the WWE admitted as much in certain lawsuits it was a party to). In California, Corcoran State Prison became infamous in 1997 when it was discovered that the guards were staging informal "gladiator" fights with the prisoners (some of which were videotaped). Such fights differ from true gladiator fights in that they were not state-sponsored or approved. == References == * Thomas Wiedemann: ''Emperors and Gladiators'', Routledge 1992 * [http://itsa.ucsf.edu/~snlrc/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/gladiators.html James Grout: ''Gladiators'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana] *[http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Arena.html Violence and the Romans: The Arena Spectacles] *[http://nefer-seba.net/essays/Spartacus/ The Revolt of Spartacus] A narrative essay. * Daniel P Mannix: "Those About To Die", Ballantine Books, New York 1958 Ancient Rome Defunct occupations Sports occupations la:Gladiator
Gladiator
Heres an article on Gladiators from "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", John Murray, London, 1875. Someone might want to integrate this with the main text. --User:Imran 16:44 Jul 21, 2002 (PDT) ---- GLADIATORES (monomavcoi), were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places for the amusement of the Roman people (Gladiator est, qui in arena, populo spectante, pugnavit, Quintil. Declam. 302). They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased (Tertull. de Spectac. 12; Serv. ad Virg. Aen. x.519). [FUNUS p559a.] A show of gladiators was called munus, and the person who exhibited (edebat) it, editor, munerator, or dominus, who was honoured during the day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of a magistrate (Capitol. M. Anton. Philos. 23; Flor. iii.20; Cic. ad Att. ii.19 §3). Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264, in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their father (Valer. Max. ii.4 §7; Liv. Epit. 16). They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and even at those of women (Suet. Jul. 26; Spartian. Hadr. 9). Private persons sometimes left a sum of money in their will to pay the expenses of such an exhibition at their funerals (Sen. de Brev. Vit. 20). Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments (Athen. iv. p153; Sil. Ital. xi.51), and especially at public festivals by the aediles and other magistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers with the view of pleasing the people (Cic. pro Mur. 18; de Off. ii.16). [AEDILES] Under the empire the passion of the Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest height, and the number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost incredible. After Trajan's triumph over the Dacians, there were more than 10,000 exhibited (Dion. Cass. lxviii.15). Gladiators consisted either of captives (Vopisc. Prob. 19), slaves (Suet. Vitell. 12), and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought voluntarily. Of those who were condemned, some were said to be condemned ad gladium, in which case they were obliged to be killed at least within a year; and others ad ludum, who might obtain their discharge at the end of three years (Ulpian, Collat. Mos. et Rom. Leg. tit.ii, s.7 §4). Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called auctorati (Quint. l.c.; Hor. Sat. ii.7.58), and their hire auctoramentum or gladiatorium ( Suet. Tib. 7; Liv. xliv.31). They also took an oath upon entering the service, which is preserved by Petronius (117): "In verba Eumolpi sacramentum juravimus, uri, vinciri, verberari, ferroque necari, et quicquid aliud Eumolpus jussisset, tamquam legitimi gladiatores domino corpora animasque religiosissime addicimus." (cf. Senec. Epist. 7.) Even under the republic free-born citizens fought as gladiators (Liv. xxviii.21), but they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the empire, however, both equites and senators fought in the arena (Dion Cass. li.22; lvi.25; Suet. Jul. 39; Aug. 43; Ner. 12), and even women (Tacit. Ann. xv.32; Suet. Dom. 4; Juv. vi.250, &c.; Stat. Silv. I.vi.53); which practice was at length forbidden in the time of Severus (Dion Cass. lxxv.16). Gladiators were kept in schools (ludi), where they were trained by persons called lanistae Suet. Jul. 26; Cic. pro Rosc. Amer. 40; Juv. vi.216, xi.8). The whole body of gladiators under one lanista was frequently called familia (Suet. Aug. 42). They sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other times belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of the ludus Aemilius at Rome (Hor. de Art. poet. 32), and of Caesar's ludus at Capua (Caes. Bell. Civ. i.14). The superintendence of the ludi, which belonged to the emperors, was entrusted to a person of high rank, called curator or procurator (Tacit. Ann. xi.35; xiii.22; Suet. Cal. 27; Gruter, Inscr. p489). The gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called rudes (Suet. Cal. 32, 54). Great attention was paid to their diet in order to increase the strength of their bodies, whence Cicero (Phil. ii.23) speaks of "gladiatoria totius corporis firmitas". They were fed with nourishing food, called gladiatoria sagina (Tacit. Hist. ii.88). A great number of gladiators were trained at Ravenna on account of the salubrity of the place (Strabo, v. p213). Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in the amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM] The person who was to exhibit a show of gladiators published some days before the exhibition bills (libelli), containing the number and sometimes the names of those who were to fight (Cic. ad Fam. ii.8; Suet. Caes. 26). When the day came, they were led along the arena in procession, and matched by pairs (Hor. Sat. i.7.20); and their swords were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp (Dion Cass. lxviii.3; Suet. Tit. 9; Lipsius, Excurs. ad Tac. Ann. iii.37). At first there was a kind of sham battle, called praelusio, in which they fought with wooden swords, or the like (Cic. de Orat. ii. 78, 80; Ovid, Ars Amat. iii.515; Senec. Epist. 117), and afterwards at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator was wounded, the people called out habet or hoc habet; and the one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission. His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down their thumbs if they wished him to be killed (Hor. Ep. i.18.66; Juv. iii.36), and ordered him to receive the sword (ferrum recipere), which gladiators usually did with the greatest firmness (Cic. Tusc. ii.17, pro Sext. 37, pro Mil. 34). If the life of a vanquished gladiator was spared, he obtained his discharge for the day, which was called missio (Mart. xii.29.7); and hence in an exhibition of gladiators sine missione (Liv. xli.20), the lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition, however, was forbidden by Augustus (Suet. Aug. 45). Palms were usually given to the victorious gladiators (Suet. Cal. 32); and hence, a gladiator, who had frequently conquered, is called "plurimarum palmarum gladiator" (Cic. pro Rosc. Amer. 6); money also was sometimes given ( Juv. vii.243; Suet. Claud. 21 ). Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by the editor at the request of the people, who presented each of them with a rudis or wooden sword; whence those who were discharged were called Rudiarii (Cic. Philip. ii.29; Hor. Ep. i.1, ; Suet. Tib. 7; Quint. l.c.). If a person was free before he entered the ludus, he became on his discharge free again; and if he had been a slave, he returned to the same condition again. A man, however, who had been a gladiator was always considered to have disgraced himself, and consequently it appears he could not obtain the equestrian rank if he afterwards acquired sufficient property to entitle him to it (Quin. l.c.); and a slave who had been sent into a ludus and there manumitted either by his then owner or another owner, merely acquired the status of a peregrinus dediticius (Gaius, i.13). Shows of gladiators were abolished by Constantine (Cod. 11. tit.43), but appear notwithstanding to have been generally exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally suppressed (Theodoret, Hist. Eccles. v.20). Gladiators were divided into different classes, according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other circumstances. The names of the most important of these classes is given in alphabetical order: *Andabatae (Cic. ad Fam. vii.10), wore helmets without any aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold, and thus excited the mirth of the spectators. Some modern writers say that they fought on horseback, but this is denied by Orelli (Inscr. 2577). *Catervarii was the name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when several fought together (Suet. Aug. 45; gregatim dimicantes, Cal. 30). *Dimacheri appear to have been so called, because they fought with two swords (Artemiod. ii.32; Orelli, Inscr. 2584). *Equites were those who fought on horseback (Orelli, 2569, 2577). *Essedarii fought from chariots like the Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA] They are frequently mentioned in inscriptions (Orelli, 2566, 2584, &c.) *Fiscales were those under the empire, who were trained and supported from the fiscus (Capitol. Gord. 33). *Hoplomachi appear to have been those who fought in a complete suit of armor (Suet. Cal. 35; Martial, viii.74; Orelli, 2566). Lipsius considers them to have been the same with the Samnites, and that this name was disused under the emperors, and hoplomachi substituted for it. *Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries (Isid. xviii.56). *Meridiani were those who fought in the middle of the day, after combats with wild beasts had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly armed (Senec. Epist. 7; Suet. Claud. 34; Orelli, 2587). *Mirmillones are said to have been so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr, mormuvroV) on their helmets (Festus, s.v. Retiario). Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the retiarii or Thracians (Cic. Phil. iii.12, vii.6; Juv. viii.200; Suet. Cal. 32; Orelli, 2566, 2580). *Ordinarii was the name applied to all the regular gladiators, who fought in pairs, in the ordinary way (Senec. Epist. 7; Suet. Aug. 45, Cal. 26). *Postulaticii were such as were demanded by the people from the editor, in addition to those who were exhibited (Senec. l.c.). *Provocatores fought with the Samnites (Cic. pro Sext. 64), but we do not know any thing respecting them except their name. They are mentioned in inscriptions (Orelli, 2566). The probokavtwr mentioned by Artemiodorus (ii.32) appears to be the same as the provocator. *Retiarii carried only a three-pointed lance, called tridens or fuscina [FUSCINA], and a net (rete), which they endeavoured to throw over their adversaries, and then to attack them with the fuscina while they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the net, he betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His adversary was usually a secutor or a mirmillo (Juv. ii.143, viii.204; Suet. Cal. 30; Claud. 34; Orelli, 2578). In the following woodcut, taken from Winckelmann (Monum. Ined. pl. 197), a combat is represented between a retiarius and a mirmillo: the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind the retiarius. *Samnites were so called, because they were armed in the same way as that people, and were particularly distinguished by the oblong scutum (Liv. ix.40; Cic. pro Sext. 64). *Secutores are supposed by some writers to be so called because the secutor in his combat with the retiarius pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net. Other writers think that they were the same as the supposititii, mentioned by Martial (v.24), who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were wearied or were killed (Cal. 30; Juv. viii.210). If the old reading in a letter of Cicero's (ad Att. vii.14) is correct, Julius Caesar had no less than 500 secutores in his rudus at Capua; but it appears probable that we ought to read scutorum instead of secutorum. *Supposititii. See Secutores. *Thraces or Threces were armed like the Thracians with a round shield or buckler (Festus, s.v. Thraeces), and a short sword or dagger (sica, Suet. Cal. 30), which is called falx supina by Juvenal (viii.201). They were usually matched, as already stated, with the mirmillones. ---- ''What above is at:
[http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Gladiatores.html] (copy up to "html") - copyright status seems to need better investigation (see [http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/HELP/Copyright/home.html related policy])''. ---- The definition from the article :''A Gladiator is a low-class infantry soldier, specifically selected for highly risky operations or combats.'' seems to be highly non-standard. Every other source I consulted, including the text above, defines gladiators as Roman entertainment fighters. I will change the article correspondingly. User:AxelBoldt 23:06 Dec 19, 2002 (UTC) ---- I have a question about the thumbs up/down bit... :"If the audience (or sponsor or emperor) wanted that the loser should be killed, they pointed their thumbs downwards. If they wanted him to live, they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it (ie. they did not point upwards as commonly believed)." ::I have also heard (from various teachers and profs, and various books) that they used the thumbs up/down the same way we do, or they used it the opposite way, or no one knows which was which. I have even had two classics profs at UWO give two different explanations (the latter two I listed). Is there actually any consensus? User:Adam Bishop 13:46, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC) :::Roman writers described the gesture as "Pollice verso", literally "turned thumb". But no-one really knows whether this was up, down, or neither. User:Matthewmayer == Disambiguation of Seneca == I've pointed the reference to Seneca to Seneca the Younger, as it seems to be the most likely source. However, I have no particular knowledge here, and it could be a reference to Seneca the Elder. Please, if someone knows for sure, say so here, and correct the article if necessary. -User:Rholton 14:01, 31 Dec 2003 (UTC) ==Odd looking sentence== What does this line mean ? ''"There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy."'' Eaten by who ? User:Jay 08:10, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC) ---- I did my senior resarch paper on the gladiators of rome. I've added some interesting things to this article. :Thanks...but don't delete other comments on the talk page :) User:Adam Bishop 16:21, 12 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Cleanup? == User:Apol0gies, why did you add a cleanup tag to this article? What needs to be cleaned up? User:Adam Bishop 22:09, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC) == The gladius == The gladiator article states that the weapon called "gladius" was used by "some" gladiators, and that the weapon inspired the name of the fighter (...makes sense). The gladius article states that "[c]ontrary to common belief, the gladius was not used by gladiators, who used a version with a shorter blade". Could this please be clarified and fixed? Also, does this shorter weapon have a name, and if the gladius was not used by the gladiators, how did one name inspire the other? Thanks. --User:Liberlogos 22:28, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
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