
#redirect Genetic engineering
[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An iconic image of genetic engineering; this 1986 "autoluminograph" of a glowing transgenic tobacco plant bearing the luciferase gene of fireflys strikingly demonstrates the power and potential of genetic manipulation.]] Genetic engineering, genetic modification (GM), and gene splicing (once in widespread use but now deprecated) are terms for the process of manipulating genes in an organism, usually outside the organism's normal reproductive process. It often involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of DNA into model organism, usually to gene expression a protein. The aim is to introduce new characteristics to an organism in order to increase its usefulness, such as increasing the yield of a crop species, introducing a novel characteristic, or producing a new protein or enzyme. Examples are the production of human insulin through the use of modified bacteria and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the Oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research, through genetic redesign. Since a protein is specified by a segment of DNA called a gene, future versions of that protein can be modified by changing the gene's underlying DNA. One way to do this is to isolate the piece of DNA containing the gene, precisely cut the gene out, and then reintroduce (splice) the gene into a different DNA segment. Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith received the 1978 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for their isolation of restriction enzyme, which are able to cut DNA at specific sites. Together with ligase, which can join fragments of DNA together, restriction enzymes formed the initial basis of recombinant DNA technology. == Naming == The term "genetic engineering" is sometimes informally abbreviated as "gengineering." "Transgenic organism" is now the preferred term for genetically modified organisms with extra-genome information, as opposed to "genetically engineered" organisms. == Applications == One of the best known applications of genetic engineering is that of the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). There are potentially momentous biotechnology applications of GM, for example oral vaccines produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost. This represents, however, a spread of genetic modification to medical purposes and opens an ethical door to other uses of the technology to directly modify human genomes. These effects are often not traceable back to direct causes in the genome, but rather in the environment or interaction of proteins. The means by which 'genes' (in fact DNA strands that are assumed to have discrete effects) are detected and inserted are inexact, including such means as coating gold particles with DNA to be inserted and literally firing it at strands of target DNA (see gene gun), which is guaranteed to cause insertions in at least some random locations, which can on rare occasion cause unplanned characteristics. Similar objections apply to protein engineering and molecular engineering for use as drugs. However, a single protein or a molecule is easier to examine for 'quality control' than a complete genome, and there are more limited claims made for the reliability of proteins and molecules, than for the genomes of whole organisms. While protein and molecule engineers often times acknowledge the requirement to test their products in a wide variety of environments to determine if they pose dangers to life, the position of many genetic engineers is that they do not need to do so, since the outputs of their work are 'substantially the same as' the original organism which was produced by the original genome(s). An extreme ambition of some groups is human enhancement via genetics, eventually by artificial intelligence or molecular engineering. ''See also:'' transhumanism. Genetic sequencing which is used to identify each base in DNA is exceedingly cheap. As of mid-2005, it cost 1/10 of 1 cent to sequence a single base. At the current rate of price decrease, the entire human genome could have been sequenced for less than 100 U.S. dollars. === Genetic engineering and research === Although there has been a tremendous revolution in the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains to be discovered. The completion of the sequencing of the human genome, as well as the genomes of most agriculturally and scientifically important plants and animals, have increased the possibilities of genetic research immeasurably. Expedient and inexpensive access to comprehensive genetic data has become a reality, with billions of sequenced nucleotides already online and annotated. Now that the rapid sequencing of arbitrarily large genomes has become a simple, if not trivial affair, a much greater challenge will be elucidating function of the extraordinarily complex web of interacting proteins, dubbed the proteome, that constitutes and powers all living things. Genetic engineering has become the gold standard in protein research, and major research process has been made using a wide variety of techniques, including * loss of function, such as in a Gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack one or more genes. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene which has been slightly altered such as to cripple its function. The construct is then taken up by embryonic stem cells, where the engineered copy of the gene replaces the organism's own gene. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, useful in organisms such as drosophila, is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny for the desired mutation. A similar process can be used in both plants and prokaryotes. *gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or attracting more frequent transcription. *'tracking' experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein that will allow easy visualization of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences which will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies. == Ethics == Proponents of genetic engineering argue that the technology is safe, and that it is necessary in order to maintain food production that will continue to match population growth. However, others argue that food distribution, not production, is the biggest problem, citing that the population growth is actually a result of uneven distribution of food (and wealth). Others oppose genetic engineering on the grounds that genetic modifications may have unforeseen consequences, both in the initially modified organisms, and their environments. For example, certain strains of maize have been developed that are toxic to plant eating insects (see bt corn). However, when those strains cross-polinated with other varieties of wild and domestic maize, the relevant genes were passed on. This introduced a new gene into the gene pool of the maize population outside of the crop field. The ecological and environmental effects of transgenic plants are constantly being investigated. Anti-genetic-engineering activists say that with current recombinant technology there is no way to ensure that genetically modified organisms will remain under control, and the use of this technology outside of secure laboratory environments carries unacceptable risks for the future. Some fear that certain types of genetically engineered crops will further reduce biodiversity in the cropland; herbicide-tolerant crops will for example be treated with the relevant herbicide to the extent that there are no wild plants ('weeds') able to survive, and plants toxic to insects will mean insect-free crops. This could result in declines in other wildlife (e.g. birds) which depend on weed seeds and/or insects for food resources. The recent (2003) farm scale studies in the United Kingdom found this to be the case with GM sugar beet and GM rapeseed, but not with GM maize (though in the last instance, the non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treated with environmentally damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use in the EU). Proponents of current genetic techniques as applied to food plants cite the benefits that the technology can have, for example, in the harsh agricultural conditions of third world countries. They say that with modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under the relatively hostile conditions providing much needed food to their people. Proponents also like to cite golden rice, a genetically engineered rice variety (still under development) that contains elevated vitamin A levels. There is hope that this rice may alleviate vitamin A deficiency that contributes to the death of millions annually. Proponents say that genetically engineered crops are not significantly different from those modified by nature or humans in the past, and by extension are as safe or even safer than such methods. There is gene transfer between unicellular eukaryotes and prokaryotes. There have been no known genetic catastrophes as a result of this. They argue that animal husbandry and crop breeding are also forms of genetic engineering that use artificial selection instead of modern genetic modification techniques. It is politics, they argue, not economics or science, that causes their work to be closely investigated, and for different standards to apply to it than those applied to other forms of agricultural technology. === Economic and political effects === Many opponents of current genetic engineering believe the increasing use of GM in major crops has caused a power shift in agriculture towards Biotechnology companies gaining excessive control over the production chain of crops and food, and over the farmers that use their products, as well. Many proponents of current genetic engineering techniques believe it will lower pesticide usage and has brought higher yields and profitability to many farmers, including those in third world countries. A few GM licenses allow third world farmers to save seeds for next year's planting. In April 2004 Hugo Chávez announced a total ban on genetically modified seeds in Venezuela. In January 2005, the Hungary government announced a ban on importing and planting of genetic modified maize seeds, although these were authorised by the EU. [http://www.eu.greenpeace.org/downloads/gmo/PRonHungaryBan.pdf] == See also == * Biorobotics * Cell biochemistry * Cloning * Engineer * Expression vector * Gene therapy * Genetically modified food * Genetically modified organism * Genetic engineering in fiction * Genome * Germline * Human Genetic Engineering * Human Genome Project * Plant improvement * Protein engineering * Proteomics * Site-directed mutagenesis * Substantial equivalence * Transformation (genetics) ==External links== *[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants] *[http://www.nanoaging.com/modules.php?name=News&new_topic=5 News about Genomics] *[http://www.bootstrike.com/Genetics/index.html Basics of Genetic Engineering] - Basics of Genetic Engineering Biotechnology Ethics Genetic engineering Molecular genetics vi:Kỹ thuật di truyền
If everyone agrees, I think I'll remove the NPOV boilerplate now. User:Thunderbolt16 00:29, Dec 22, 2003 (UTC) === Archived discussion === biased article indeed... -User:Anthere :This article should be deleted. It's so biased it pretty much can't be salvaged in its current form. Might as well start from scratch. User:Graft ::Delete ? No way... A lot of work to do on it, but crude deletion is not the right way to manage bias -User:Anthere :::I agree with you that it shouldn't be deleted. We just need to add a roughly equivalent amount of arguments supporting genetic engineering, as well as a neutral section that only describes how genetic engineering is done. Perhaps look at the in vitro meat article for a model. User:Astudent New article resulting from the merge of genetic engineering and genetic modification The definition given in the article for genetic engineering is too restrictive. There are other applications to genetic engineering than transfer of dna from one species to another or the extraction of dna of one species, its manipulation (repair, augmentation), then reinjection in the donor. There is also the whole area of xenografts which are not transfer of dna but transfer of organs from one species to another.user:anthere ---- I have taken the liberty of adding a section about the technical application of genetic engineering to research. It focuses mainly on animal techniques.User:Angiotensinogen This article is strongly biased, it is bordering on being anti-GM propaganda. It should be rewritten in an objective and unbiased way ASAP. -User:217.162.59.208 I am not an expert on the subject matter but am willing to help with the article. I see myself as having a neutral, science-based view of GM technology, though I do approach the intellectual property aspects from a standpoint that some may not share. User:Kat 15:54, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC) Just a personal opinion, but this article is so shot through with venom and hatred of the techniques of modern genetics, and so distorts the abilities of good geneticists, that this article borders on being useless. What it is, is a polemic against the agricultural industry and its use of genetic techniques. What it isn't is a fair discussion of the science of genetic engineering. User:Dwmyers 15:08, 16 Oct 2003 (UTC) The article is completely biased, and focuses almost exclusively on the negative effects of GE, the authors rather strange view that not knowing much about GE must mean it's in some way dangerous/negative reminds me lightly of something from the middle-ages. I'm currently working on a NPOV re-write, whether that'll solve the problem though I don't know. User:Alistair b 19:57, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC) I'm currently doing a ruthless POV edit on it now, its still not the best prose, but I think I've started its way to a good NPOV article. I hope this doesn't step on anyones toes. User:Thunderbolt16 01:59, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC) That looks much better :-) Thanks :-) I will copy under, a comment I made many months ago, when I merged genetic modification and genetic engineering The definition given in the article for genetic engineering is too restrictive. There are other applications to genetic engineering than transfer of dna from one species to another or the extraction of dna of one species, its manipulation (repair, augmentation), then reinjection in the donor. There is also the whole area of xenografts which are not transfer of dna but transfer of organs from one species to another.user:anthere ---- == Are there any positive aspects to genetic engineering == If there are I'm not aware of any. I'd rather see it die in pain until they learn how to: 1. Contain it 2. Properly test it before releasing I don't think it should die, but I agree that we need to control it before we start seriously using it. Genetic engineering will probably do wonders for medicine, but that will be a long time from now. ==Plant improvement== Is there someone here with solid technical knowledge? Those of us who usually work on cleaning up bad translations have been more or less stymied by Plant improvement. It clearly has a lot of useful content, but it's terribly written. We've decided it doesn't so much need a translator as someone with a knowledge of molecular biology. If anyone here can help, or has a suggestion as to who could, please start by leaving a note on Talk:Plant improvement. Thanks. -- User:Jmabel 01:25, Aug 17, 2004 (UTC) ==Refactor?== Is there any reason ''not'' to split out genetic engineering in fiction as a separate article? I believe it would be good for our credibility. I realize it would mean redirecting many links. -- User:Jmabel 01:29, Aug 17, 2004 (UTC) : I can't think of a reason not too, its getting a bit big, anyways. User:Thunderbolt16 03:30, Aug 18, 2004 (UTC) Since no one seems to object, I will do this. -- User:Jmabel 04:49, Aug 22, 2004 (UTC) == dubious link == The newly added link to a page on http://www.nanoaging.com looks a bit dubious to me, can someone with a clue have a look? -- User:Jmabel 03:39, Sep 24, 2004 (UTC) :: It looked dubious to me as well, but it seems just to syndicate news from other sources, newswise, scienceblog, etc. I think it's ok User:Thunderbolt16 02:35, Sep 25, 2004 (UTC) ==Maui Psyko replies to... == After doing much research on the topic, I must further emphasize my point. There are too many positive aspects to genetic engineering and stem cell research to discontinue it. For example, we have already used stem cells to treat cancer, Parkinson's, spinal injuries, and more. Were we to find ways to enhance these cells through genetic modification, we might just find some cures. User:Maui Psyko 19:43, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC) Sorry, didnt see notice for all new comments above line. It wont happen again, officer User:Maui Psyko Don't sweat it, shouldn't have been there, I've removed it. -- User:Jmabel | User talk:Jmabel 00:16, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC) :I'm not sure what point you are "further emphasizing" I don't see any previous comments by you on this page. But if you have relevant material to add to the article, I'd say to go for it. -- User:Jmabel | User talk:Jmabel 00:16, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC) "I don't think it should die, but I agree that we need to control it before we start seriously using it. Genetic engineering will probably do wonders for medicine, but that will be a long time from now." This is what i was referring to before. I added that before i had an account, and i didnt say anything about it for the simple reason that i wanted to confuse people. I believe it worked, and i thank you for amusing me. User:Mauipsyko 20:12, 8 Nov 2004 (UTC) == major, uncommented, anonymous edit == It looks like the recent edit by User:67.38.162.238 was major, including a lot of removal from the article, and has now stood for about 12 hours. This is an article I usually monitor just to watch for obvious vandalism; the scope of this edit is beyond my ability to judge it, but I'd appreciate if a logged in user would either endorse or revert the edit. -- User:Jmabel | User talk:Jmabel 19:39, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC) I don't know what went wrong when i readded the section on Applications of gen. en., and i dont know how to fix it. and i did add it, i just forgot to log in. anyone with more experience please fix it!! User:Mauipsyko 23:24, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC) == New article about genetic engineering == User:JarlaxleArtemis 01:58, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC) Genetic Engeneering It's completely unbiased. Go ahead, read it. And it's going to be deleted very fast. Here's your material: User:Brownman40 07:02, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Genetic engineering == Genetic engineering is a sub-field of biotechnology, which in turn is a sub-field of a very broad area called bioengineering. Genetic engineering involves the heritable, directed alteration of an organism. There are many responsibilities that go along with being a genetic engineer. There is laboratory work that involves micro-syringes, plastic disposable apparatus, controlled sterility, temperature, humidity, and lighting environments, DNA separation and transfer systems, and DNA analysis. A great deal of care goes into keeping the laboratory organisms alive and healthy. One must also search literature abstracts, databases and read current journals, dream up, design, and interpret experiments, publish experimental results by writing papers for scientific journals, and attend international conferences. One needs to be able to communicate well with colleagues and teach both theory and practice to junior colleagues or university students. One has to also attend to the laboratory and dangerous organisms within the laboratory while meeting radiological health and safety requirements. Other responsibilities include ordering equipment and organisms and inventing new techniques and applications to genetic engineering. Unfortunately, genetic engineering has its drawbacks, In order to be a genetic engineer, one must meet the credentials and educational requirements that are necessary to obtaining a job. One must have a decent, all-around education, get along with others, possess an unbroken moral sense, enjoy one’s subject of research and show personal commencement. One must also have a vivacious and inventive imagination, a keen mind and ability to animadvert reductionistically, and a capacity to regard living organisms as tools to build one’s career while utilizing the basic ethical standards of treatment for those organisms as are enforced by society. The educational requirements for genetic engineering are as follows: high school and exam passes to university entrance grades covering genetics, biology, chemistry, and mathematics subjects, and undergraduate education in molecular biology or molecular genetics with a Bachelor of Science degree, a Ph.D. degree based on several years of original research under the guidance of a supervisor, post-doctoral research experience under your own area of molecular biology, and experience in recombinant DNA techniques. The field of genetic engineering is extremely complex. There are many different ways of altering or adding genetic material in a cell or organism in order for that cell or organism to get the desirable traits. Radiation and mutagenic compounds are not recommended, as they can significantly damage DNA. There are specially altered viruses, though, that can introduce new genetic material into an organism. The most accurate and precise way of altering known genes so far is gene targeting, where transposable elements are used to move genes around in cells and organisms. Gene therapies use gene targeting to replace or repair defective genes in tissues. When germline, or reproductive, cells are genetically altered, the offspring of that organism may inherit the new trait. In sexual reproduction only half of the genes are given to the offspring, thus diluting the germline genetic modifications over time. If non-germline, or non-reproductive, cells are genetically altered, however, the offspring will not inherit the new gene or trait. Genes are a broad concept that in the earlier days of genetics were distinct traits that could be witnessed in the entire organism. Nowadays, a molecular gene “is a definite sequence of bases in the DNA chain which together code for the production of a particular protein (A Beginner’s Guide 2).” Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) are the nitrogen bases that combine to form deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. Guanine pairs with cytosine and thymine pairs with adenine. Chemical substances called proteins carry out the formation and function of cells and organisms by either forming part of definite structures or by acting as catalysts. Genetic engineers receive a wide range of income. The typical salary is $25,000-$100,000 a year. Those are excellent benefits, indeed. Genetic engineering REFERENCES: A Beginner’s Guide to Genetic Engineering, Internet: 12/7/04. http://www.ifgene.org/beginner.htm Browse Bioscience Jobs, Biotechnology Jobs, Life Science Jobs on the BioJobNetwork, Internet: 12/8/2004. http://www.biojobnet.com/ Genetic Engineering for Non-scientists—Introduction to Genetic Engineering, Internet: 12/8/2004. http://www.dnapatent.com/science/index.html Human Cloning and Genetic Engineering, Internet: 12/8/04. http://biofact.com/cloning/ Well, your article is unbiased, I'll give you that. By the sound of it it would seem that you are biased towards the engineers themselves. You describe the job requirements as if you were trying to encourage people to enter the field of genetic engineering. This sounds more like a job application than an article on gen. en. Im wondering if you yourself are a genetic engineer in need of an assistant. Good article otherwise. User:Maui Psyko 20:13, 5 Jan 2005 (UTC) I just realized that i sounded like an idiot. I meant that the article is unbiased but you imply that you may personally be a big supporter of genetic engineers. Not that theres anything wrong with that. User:Maui Psyko 20:16, 5 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Opposition to Name "Engineering"- Huh? == "Reluctance to recognize this field as "engineering" has become popular in the anti-globalization movement and safe trade movement, and is also widely held by most Green parties, and the major parties of France and Germany, which have resisted any agricultural policy favoring genetically modified food. These groups tend to resist the label 'engineer' as applied to such genetic modification most strongly." In Germany has never been opposition to such a term. BUT to the term "Grüne Biotechnologie" (Green Biotechnology) which is used to describe genetic engineering of food. Normally, using the word "green" in context with technology implies something like renewable energy or technology to lower pollution ie. something treehuggers would approve of. From the wording "Green Biotechnology" itself you don't get the information that it only means genetic engineering of food and not of medicine (something with no strong opposition). So it is clearly PR Language. Frankly, the whole "Naming" part of the article looks like Nonsense to me. If nobody capable of French knows about such a discussion it should be deleted. User:217.81.70.35 17:55, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC) * I have been bold and removed most of the naming controversy from that section based on it not having any citation. if anyone objects feel free to revert and discuss it here. User:Thunderbolt16 03:31, May 29, 2005 (UTC) == Golden Rice == I thought that golden rice contained β-carotene, not vitamin A. :It, in fact, contains both β-carotene and Vitamin A, as well as many other substances._JarlaxleArtemis">User:JarlaxleArtemis 01:35, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)
Biotechnology
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Genetic Engineering
#redirect Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering
[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An iconic image of genetic engineering; this 1986 "autoluminograph" of a glowing transgenic tobacco plant bearing the luciferase gene of fireflys strikingly demonstrates the power and potential of genetic manipulation.]] Genetic engineering, genetic modification (GM), and gene splicing (once in widespread use but now deprecated) are terms for the process of manipulating genes in an organism, usually outside the organism's normal reproductive process. It often involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of DNA into model organism, usually to gene expression a protein. The aim is to introduce new characteristics to an organism in order to increase its usefulness, such as increasing the yield of a crop species, introducing a novel characteristic, or producing a new protein or enzyme. Examples are the production of human insulin through the use of modified bacteria and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the Oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research, through genetic redesign. Since a protein is specified by a segment of DNA called a gene, future versions of that protein can be modified by changing the gene's underlying DNA. One way to do this is to isolate the piece of DNA containing the gene, precisely cut the gene out, and then reintroduce (splice) the gene into a different DNA segment. Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith received the 1978 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for their isolation of restriction enzyme, which are able to cut DNA at specific sites. Together with ligase, which can join fragments of DNA together, restriction enzymes formed the initial basis of recombinant DNA technology. == Naming == The term "genetic engineering" is sometimes informally abbreviated as "gengineering." "Transgenic organism" is now the preferred term for genetically modified organisms with extra-genome information, as opposed to "genetically engineered" organisms. == Applications == One of the best known applications of genetic engineering is that of the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). There are potentially momentous biotechnology applications of GM, for example oral vaccines produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost. This represents, however, a spread of genetic modification to medical purposes and opens an ethical door to other uses of the technology to directly modify human genomes. These effects are often not traceable back to direct causes in the genome, but rather in the environment or interaction of proteins. The means by which 'genes' (in fact DNA strands that are assumed to have discrete effects) are detected and inserted are inexact, including such means as coating gold particles with DNA to be inserted and literally firing it at strands of target DNA (see gene gun), which is guaranteed to cause insertions in at least some random locations, which can on rare occasion cause unplanned characteristics. Similar objections apply to protein engineering and molecular engineering for use as drugs. However, a single protein or a molecule is easier to examine for 'quality control' than a complete genome, and there are more limited claims made for the reliability of proteins and molecules, than for the genomes of whole organisms. While protein and molecule engineers often times acknowledge the requirement to test their products in a wide variety of environments to determine if they pose dangers to life, the position of many genetic engineers is that they do not need to do so, since the outputs of their work are 'substantially the same as' the original organism which was produced by the original genome(s). An extreme ambition of some groups is human enhancement via genetics, eventually by artificial intelligence or molecular engineering. ''See also:'' transhumanism. Genetic sequencing which is used to identify each base in DNA is exceedingly cheap. As of mid-2005, it cost 1/10 of 1 cent to sequence a single base. At the current rate of price decrease, the entire human genome could have been sequenced for less than 100 U.S. dollars. === Genetic engineering and research === Although there has been a tremendous revolution in the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains to be discovered. The completion of the sequencing of the human genome, as well as the genomes of most agriculturally and scientifically important plants and animals, have increased the possibilities of genetic research immeasurably. Expedient and inexpensive access to comprehensive genetic data has become a reality, with billions of sequenced nucleotides already online and annotated. Now that the rapid sequencing of arbitrarily large genomes has become a simple, if not trivial affair, a much greater challenge will be elucidating function of the extraordinarily complex web of interacting proteins, dubbed the proteome, that constitutes and powers all living things. Genetic engineering has become the gold standard in protein research, and major research process has been made using a wide variety of techniques, including * loss of function, such as in a Gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack one or more genes. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene which has been slightly altered such as to cripple its function. The construct is then taken up by embryonic stem cells, where the engineered copy of the gene replaces the organism's own gene. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, useful in organisms such as drosophila, is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny for the desired mutation. A similar process can be used in both plants and prokaryotes. *gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or attracting more frequent transcription. *'tracking' experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein that will allow easy visualization of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences which will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies. == Ethics == Proponents of genetic engineering argue that the technology is safe, and that it is necessary in order to maintain food production that will continue to match population growth. However, others argue that food distribution, not production, is the biggest problem, citing that the population growth is actually a result of uneven distribution of food (and wealth). Others oppose genetic engineering on the grounds that genetic modifications may have unforeseen consequences, both in the initially modified organisms, and their environments. For example, certain strains of maize have been developed that are toxic to plant eating insects (see bt corn). However, when those strains cross-polinated with other varieties of wild and domestic maize, the relevant genes were passed on. This introduced a new gene into the gene pool of the maize population outside of the crop field. The ecological and environmental effects of transgenic plants are constantly being investigated. Anti-genetic-engineering activists say that with current recombinant technology there is no way to ensure that genetically modified organisms will remain under control, and the use of this technology outside of secure laboratory environments carries unacceptable risks for the future. Some fear that certain types of genetically engineered crops will further reduce biodiversity in the cropland; herbicide-tolerant crops will for example be treated with the relevant herbicide to the extent that there are no wild plants ('weeds') able to survive, and plants toxic to insects will mean insect-free crops. This could result in declines in other wildlife (e.g. birds) which depend on weed seeds and/or insects for food resources. The recent (2003) farm scale studies in the United Kingdom found this to be the case with GM sugar beet and GM rapeseed, but not with GM maize (though in the last instance, the non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treated with environmentally damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use in the EU). Proponents of current genetic techniques as applied to food plants cite the benefits that the technology can have, for example, in the harsh agricultural conditions of third world countries. They say that with modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under the relatively hostile conditions providing much needed food to their people. Proponents also like to cite golden rice, a genetically engineered rice variety (still under development) that contains elevated vitamin A levels. There is hope that this rice may alleviate vitamin A deficiency that contributes to the death of millions annually. Proponents say that genetically engineered crops are not significantly different from those modified by nature or humans in the past, and by extension are as safe or even safer than such methods. There is gene transfer between unicellular eukaryotes and prokaryotes. There have been no known genetic catastrophes as a result of this. They argue that animal husbandry and crop breeding are also forms of genetic engineering that use artificial selection instead of modern genetic modification techniques. It is politics, they argue, not economics or science, that causes their work to be closely investigated, and for different standards to apply to it than those applied to other forms of agricultural technology. === Economic and political effects === Many opponents of current genetic engineering believe the increasing use of GM in major crops has caused a power shift in agriculture towards Biotechnology companies gaining excessive control over the production chain of crops and food, and over the farmers that use their products, as well. Many proponents of current genetic engineering techniques believe it will lower pesticide usage and has brought higher yields and profitability to many farmers, including those in third world countries. A few GM licenses allow third world farmers to save seeds for next year's planting. In April 2004 Hugo Chávez announced a total ban on genetically modified seeds in Venezuela. In January 2005, the Hungary government announced a ban on importing and planting of genetic modified maize seeds, although these were authorised by the EU. [http://www.eu.greenpeace.org/downloads/gmo/PRonHungaryBan.pdf] == See also == * Biorobotics * Cell biochemistry * Cloning * Engineer * Expression vector * Gene therapy * Genetically modified food * Genetically modified organism * Genetic engineering in fiction * Genome * Germline * Human Genetic Engineering * Human Genome Project * Plant improvement * Protein engineering * Proteomics * Site-directed mutagenesis * Substantial equivalence * Transformation (genetics) ==External links== *[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants] *[http://www.nanoaging.com/modules.php?name=News&new_topic=5 News about Genomics] *[http://www.bootstrike.com/Genetics/index.html Basics of Genetic Engineering] - Basics of Genetic Engineering Biotechnology Ethics Genetic engineering Molecular genetics vi:Kỹ thuật di truyền
Genetic engineering
If everyone agrees, I think I'll remove the NPOV boilerplate now. User:Thunderbolt16 00:29, Dec 22, 2003 (UTC) === Archived discussion === biased article indeed... -User:Anthere :This article should be deleted. It's so biased it pretty much can't be salvaged in its current form. Might as well start from scratch. User:Graft ::Delete ? No way... A lot of work to do on it, but crude deletion is not the right way to manage bias -User:Anthere :::I agree with you that it shouldn't be deleted. We just need to add a roughly equivalent amount of arguments supporting genetic engineering, as well as a neutral section that only describes how genetic engineering is done. Perhaps look at the in vitro meat article for a model. User:Astudent New article resulting from the merge of genetic engineering and genetic modification The definition given in the article for genetic engineering is too restrictive. There are other applications to genetic engineering than transfer of dna from one species to another or the extraction of dna of one species, its manipulation (repair, augmentation), then reinjection in the donor. There is also the whole area of xenografts which are not transfer of dna but transfer of organs from one species to another.user:anthere ---- I have taken the liberty of adding a section about the technical application of genetic engineering to research. It focuses mainly on animal techniques.User:Angiotensinogen This article is strongly biased, it is bordering on being anti-GM propaganda. It should be rewritten in an objective and unbiased way ASAP. -User:217.162.59.208 I am not an expert on the subject matter but am willing to help with the article. I see myself as having a neutral, science-based view of GM technology, though I do approach the intellectual property aspects from a standpoint that some may not share. User:Kat 15:54, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC) Just a personal opinion, but this article is so shot through with venom and hatred of the techniques of modern genetics, and so distorts the abilities of good geneticists, that this article borders on being useless. What it is, is a polemic against the agricultural industry and its use of genetic techniques. What it isn't is a fair discussion of the science of genetic engineering. User:Dwmyers 15:08, 16 Oct 2003 (UTC) The article is completely biased, and focuses almost exclusively on the negative effects of GE, the authors rather strange view that not knowing much about GE must mean it's in some way dangerous/negative reminds me lightly of something from the middle-ages. I'm currently working on a NPOV re-write, whether that'll solve the problem though I don't know. User:Alistair b 19:57, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC) I'm currently doing a ruthless POV edit on it now, its still not the best prose, but I think I've started its way to a good NPOV article. I hope this doesn't step on anyones toes. User:Thunderbolt16 01:59, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC) That looks much better :-) Thanks :-) I will copy under, a comment I made many months ago, when I merged genetic modification and genetic engineering The definition given in the article for genetic engineering is too restrictive. There are other applications to genetic engineering than transfer of dna from one species to another or the extraction of dna of one species, its manipulation (repair, augmentation), then reinjection in the donor. There is also the whole area of xenografts which are not transfer of dna but transfer of organs from one species to another.user:anthere ---- == Are there any positive aspects to genetic engineering == If there are I'm not aware of any. I'd rather see it die in pain until they learn how to: 1. Contain it 2. Properly test it before releasing I don't think it should die, but I agree that we need to control it before we start seriously using it. Genetic engineering will probably do wonders for medicine, but that will be a long time from now. ==Plant improvement== Is there someone here with solid technical knowledge? Those of us who usually work on cleaning up bad translations have been more or less stymied by Plant improvement. It clearly has a lot of useful content, but it's terribly written. We've decided it doesn't so much need a translator as someone with a knowledge of molecular biology. If anyone here can help, or has a suggestion as to who could, please start by leaving a note on Talk:Plant improvement. Thanks. -- User:Jmabel 01:25, Aug 17, 2004 (UTC) ==Refactor?== Is there any reason ''not'' to split out genetic engineering in fiction as a separate article? I believe it would be good for our credibility. I realize it would mean redirecting many links. -- User:Jmabel 01:29, Aug 17, 2004 (UTC) : I can't think of a reason not too, its getting a bit big, anyways. User:Thunderbolt16 03:30, Aug 18, 2004 (UTC) Since no one seems to object, I will do this. -- User:Jmabel 04:49, Aug 22, 2004 (UTC) == dubious link == The newly added link to a page on http://www.nanoaging.com looks a bit dubious to me, can someone with a clue have a look? -- User:Jmabel 03:39, Sep 24, 2004 (UTC) :: It looked dubious to me as well, but it seems just to syndicate news from other sources, newswise, scienceblog, etc. I think it's ok User:Thunderbolt16 02:35, Sep 25, 2004 (UTC) ==Maui Psyko replies to... == After doing much research on the topic, I must further emphasize my point. There are too many positive aspects to genetic engineering and stem cell research to discontinue it. For example, we have already used stem cells to treat cancer, Parkinson's, spinal injuries, and more. Were we to find ways to enhance these cells through genetic modification, we might just find some cures. User:Maui Psyko 19:43, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC) Sorry, didnt see notice for all new comments above line. It wont happen again, officer User:Maui Psyko Don't sweat it, shouldn't have been there, I've removed it. -- User:Jmabel | User talk:Jmabel 00:16, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC) :I'm not sure what point you are "further emphasizing" I don't see any previous comments by you on this page. But if you have relevant material to add to the article, I'd say to go for it. -- User:Jmabel | User talk:Jmabel 00:16, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC) "I don't think it should die, but I agree that we need to control it before we start seriously using it. Genetic engineering will probably do wonders for medicine, but that will be a long time from now." This is what i was referring to before. I added that before i had an account, and i didnt say anything about it for the simple reason that i wanted to confuse people. I believe it worked, and i thank you for amusing me. User:Mauipsyko 20:12, 8 Nov 2004 (UTC) == major, uncommented, anonymous edit == It looks like the recent edit by User:67.38.162.238 was major, including a lot of removal from the article, and has now stood for about 12 hours. This is an article I usually monitor just to watch for obvious vandalism; the scope of this edit is beyond my ability to judge it, but I'd appreciate if a logged in user would either endorse or revert the edit. -- User:Jmabel | User talk:Jmabel 19:39, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC) I don't know what went wrong when i readded the section on Applications of gen. en., and i dont know how to fix it. and i did add it, i just forgot to log in. anyone with more experience please fix it!! User:Mauipsyko 23:24, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC) == New article about genetic engineering == User:JarlaxleArtemis 01:58, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC) Genetic Engeneering It's completely unbiased. Go ahead, read it. And it's going to be deleted very fast. Here's your material: User:Brownman40 07:02, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Genetic engineering == Genetic engineering is a sub-field of biotechnology, which in turn is a sub-field of a very broad area called bioengineering. Genetic engineering involves the heritable, directed alteration of an organism. There are many responsibilities that go along with being a genetic engineer. There is laboratory work that involves micro-syringes, plastic disposable apparatus, controlled sterility, temperature, humidity, and lighting environments, DNA separation and transfer systems, and DNA analysis. A great deal of care goes into keeping the laboratory organisms alive and healthy. One must also search literature abstracts, databases and read current journals, dream up, design, and interpret experiments, publish experimental results by writing papers for scientific journals, and attend international conferences. One needs to be able to communicate well with colleagues and teach both theory and practice to junior colleagues or university students. One has to also attend to the laboratory and dangerous organisms within the laboratory while meeting radiological health and safety requirements. Other responsibilities include ordering equipment and organisms and inventing new techniques and applications to genetic engineering. Unfortunately, genetic engineering has its drawbacks, In order to be a genetic engineer, one must meet the credentials and educational requirements that are necessary to obtaining a job. One must have a decent, all-around education, get along with others, possess an unbroken moral sense, enjoy one’s subject of research and show personal commencement. One must also have a vivacious and inventive imagination, a keen mind and ability to animadvert reductionistically, and a capacity to regard living organisms as tools to build one’s career while utilizing the basic ethical standards of treatment for those organisms as are enforced by society. The educational requirements for genetic engineering are as follows: high school and exam passes to university entrance grades covering genetics, biology, chemistry, and mathematics subjects, and undergraduate education in molecular biology or molecular genetics with a Bachelor of Science degree, a Ph.D. degree based on several years of original research under the guidance of a supervisor, post-doctoral research experience under your own area of molecular biology, and experience in recombinant DNA techniques. The field of genetic engineering is extremely complex. There are many different ways of altering or adding genetic material in a cell or organism in order for that cell or organism to get the desirable traits. Radiation and mutagenic compounds are not recommended, as they can significantly damage DNA. There are specially altered viruses, though, that can introduce new genetic material into an organism. The most accurate and precise way of altering known genes so far is gene targeting, where transposable elements are used to move genes around in cells and organisms. Gene therapies use gene targeting to replace or repair defective genes in tissues. When germline, or reproductive, cells are genetically altered, the offspring of that organism may inherit the new trait. In sexual reproduction only half of the genes are given to the offspring, thus diluting the germline genetic modifications over time. If non-germline, or non-reproductive, cells are genetically altered, however, the offspring will not inherit the new gene or trait. Genes are a broad concept that in the earlier days of genetics were distinct traits that could be witnessed in the entire organism. Nowadays, a molecular gene “is a definite sequence of bases in the DNA chain which together code for the production of a particular protein (A Beginner’s Guide 2).” Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) are the nitrogen bases that combine to form deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. Guanine pairs with cytosine and thymine pairs with adenine. Chemical substances called proteins carry out the formation and function of cells and organisms by either forming part of definite structures or by acting as catalysts. Genetic engineers receive a wide range of income. The typical salary is $25,000-$100,000 a year. Those are excellent benefits, indeed. Genetic engineering REFERENCES: A Beginner’s Guide to Genetic Engineering, Internet: 12/7/04. http://www.ifgene.org/beginner.htm Browse Bioscience Jobs, Biotechnology Jobs, Life Science Jobs on the BioJobNetwork, Internet: 12/8/2004. http://www.biojobnet.com/ Genetic Engineering for Non-scientists—Introduction to Genetic Engineering, Internet: 12/8/2004. http://www.dnapatent.com/science/index.html Human Cloning and Genetic Engineering, Internet: 12/8/04. http://biofact.com/cloning/ Well, your article is unbiased, I'll give you that. By the sound of it it would seem that you are biased towards the engineers themselves. You describe the job requirements as if you were trying to encourage people to enter the field of genetic engineering. This sounds more like a job application than an article on gen. en. Im wondering if you yourself are a genetic engineer in need of an assistant. Good article otherwise. User:Maui Psyko 20:13, 5 Jan 2005 (UTC) I just realized that i sounded like an idiot. I meant that the article is unbiased but you imply that you may personally be a big supporter of genetic engineers. Not that theres anything wrong with that. User:Maui Psyko 20:16, 5 Jan 2005 (UTC) == Opposition to Name "Engineering"- Huh? == "Reluctance to recognize this field as "engineering" has become popular in the anti-globalization movement and safe trade movement, and is also widely held by most Green parties, and the major parties of France and Germany, which have resisted any agricultural policy favoring genetically modified food. These groups tend to resist the label 'engineer' as applied to such genetic modification most strongly." In Germany has never been opposition to such a term. BUT to the term "Grüne Biotechnologie" (Green Biotechnology) which is used to describe genetic engineering of food. Normally, using the word "green" in context with technology implies something like renewable energy or technology to lower pollution ie. something treehuggers would approve of. From the wording "Green Biotechnology" itself you don't get the information that it only means genetic engineering of food and not of medicine (something with no strong opposition). So it is clearly PR Language. Frankly, the whole "Naming" part of the article looks like Nonsense to me. If nobody capable of French knows about such a discussion it should be deleted. User:217.81.70.35 17:55, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC) * I have been bold and removed most of the naming controversy from that section based on it not having any citation. if anyone objects feel free to revert and discuss it here. User:Thunderbolt16 03:31, May 29, 2005 (UTC) == Golden Rice == I thought that golden rice contained β-carotene, not vitamin A. :It, in fact, contains both β-carotene and Vitamin A, as well as many other substances._
Genetic engineering
Biotechnology
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Genetic_engineering
Genetic_engineering
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