
:''For modern diplomatic consuls, see Consulate general.'' Consul (abbrev. ''cos.'') was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Roman Empire. Under the Republic, the minimum age of election to consul for patricians was 40 years of age, for plebeians 42. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together with veto power over each other's actions. The year of their service was known by their names: for instance, the year commonly called 59 BC was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar"). In Latin, ''consules'' means "those who walk together". If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle), another would be elected, and be known as a suffect consul (''cos. suff.''). The office of consul was believed to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, although the early history is partly legend, and the succession of consuls is not continuous in the 5th century BC. Consuls executed both religious and military duties; the reading of the auguries was an essential step before leading armies into the field. According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians; not until 367 BC did the plebeians win the right to stand for office, when the lex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was thereby elected the following year. Modern historians, however, have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the Early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders), noting for instance that about thirty per cent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. During times of war, the primary criterion for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the ''cursus honorum'', the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman. When Augustus Caesar established the Empire, he changed the nature of the office, stripping it of most of its powers. While still a great honor and a requirement for other offices, many consuls would resign part way through the year to allow other men to finish their term as suffects. Those who held the office on January 1, known as the consules ordinarii, had the honor of associating their names with that year. As a result, about half of the men who held the rank of praetor could also reach the consulship. Sometimes these suffect consuls would in turn resign, and another suffect would be appointed. This reached its extreme under Commodus, when in 190 twenty-five men held the consulship. Under the Empire, Emperors frequently appointed themselves, protégés, or relatives without regard to the age requirements. For example, Flavius Augustus Honorius was given the consulship at birth. Holding the consulship was apparently such an honor that the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins. One of the reforms of Constantine I of the Roman Empire was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome, and the other to Constantinople. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I, the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls— although one emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. As a result, after the formal end of the Roman Empire in the West, many years would be named for only a single consul. This rank was finally allowed to lapse in the reign of Justinian: first with the consul of Rome in 534, Decius Paulinus, then the consul of Constantinople in 541, Flavius Basilius Junior. For a complete list of Roman consuls, see: * List of Republican Roman Consuls (before 33 BC) * List of early imperial Roman consuls (33 BC‑192) * List of late imperial Roman consuls (after AD 192) ===French consuls=== In 1799, revolutionary France enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon three officials that bore the title "consul". In reality, however, the state was de facto under control of the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, although in 1802 Bonaparte was declared First Consul for life (lifetime consulate was introduced for Second and Third Consuls as well). The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared Emperor of the French in 1804. == See also == * List of Ancient Rome-related topics * Political institutions of Rome Ancient Roman titles Military ranks la:Consul
Putting a list of all of the Roman Consuls at the end of this article is a Bad Idea. This list must needs be placed in its own article. I've been meaning to do this, but lack of time (I've been caught up in a nasty fight over another website I contribute to) & my desired goal of having a complete list from 508 BC to at least AD 500 requires a lot more research than I am able to do right now, both have kept me from providing the necessary article. So I've reverted to an older article. However, the content in the Consul list here needs preserving, so I'm leaving this article complete until I can migrate enough of the content to allow me to delete this redundant 80% -- & make a far shorter article. The problem here is not a need for more material: it's that we have a valuable contribution that needs some migration into a more wieldly format. Please bear with me while I make this happen. -- User:Llywrch 03:01 Jan 13, 2003 (UTC) ---- Because the complete consul list would be extrememly long (Wikipedia sends up a warning whenever an article is over 32Kb), I've split the list into three parts -- Republican, Early Imperial & Late Imperial. I hope I've split the list in the right places & did not introduce too many errors in the compilation. -- User:Llywrch 00:48 Mar 24, 2003 (UTC) ---- (Copied from User:Llywrch talk page:) :For everybody's info -- The best source (and most authoritative still) for who Romans are and what offices they held is the Prosopographia Imperii Romani (ed. Mommsen et al. IIRC). This should really be the final arbiter, unless there is a more recent and well-argued scholarly source. User:JHK 17:27 7 Jun 2003 (UTC) == Patricians and plebeians == Reading through Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Ancient Rome (2003 edition), the authors question the traditional notion of the early Republic's political history as being a gradual struggle for the plebeians to attain equality with the patricians. Specifically to this article, it mentions that about 30 per cent of the consuls prior to 366BC had plebeian names. Unfortunately the article isn't annotated so I can't tell exactly what their source is; but the most likely sources from the bibliography for the early Republic would appear to be *E. Stuart Staveley, "Forschungsbericht: The Constitution of the Roman Republic 1940-1954", ''Historia'', 5:74-122 (1956) *E. Stuart Staveley, "The Nature and Aims of the Patriciate", ''Historia'', 32:24-57 (1983) *Kurt A. Raaflaub (ed.), ''Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders'' (1986) *Richard E. Mitchell, ''Patricians and Plebeians: The Origin of the Roman State'' (1990) Anyone have any perspective on this, or know scholarship's current opinion on the traditional story of class struggle?User:Binabik80 02:14, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC) :Try plebs and Conflict of the Orders. Mitchell's book is pretty much current, growing out of the conference proceedings mentioned at "Conflict". Tim Cornell's book on early Rome is good too, didn't get much chance to sift it into WP before it had to go back to the library, need to get it out again. User:Stan Shebs 13:19, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC) ::Okay then, I'm going to add a note to that effect in the article.User:Binabik80 15:04, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
New registered user to Wikipedia, but longtime lurker. ==Contributions== ===Creations=== Battlestar - The show Battlestar Galactica had its own article, but I thought the individual ship deserved one, too. Twelve Colonies - A page intended to describe the Twelve Colonies of Man, also from Battlestar Galactica. The Destruction of the Twelve Colonies - Hopefully the beginning of a chain of articles detailing the major battles in Battlestar Galactica. President Adar - A lame little bit on the ill-fated President of the Twelve Colonies. I'll put in a picture from my DVDs someday. Basestar - My first Cylon article. ===Edits=== Saugus - I added a little about the Saugus Iron Works, a very important historical site. I also added some information on the Theatre Company of Saugus. Cylon (Battlestar Galactica) - Fixed up the Cylon model list. Battlestar Galactica - Fixed some accuracy errors.
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Consultative_Group_on_International_Agricultural_Research
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Consulting_firm
Consulting_software_engineer
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Consul
:''For modern diplomatic consuls, see Consulate general.'' Consul (abbrev. ''cos.'') was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Roman Empire. Under the Republic, the minimum age of election to consul for patricians was 40 years of age, for plebeians 42. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together with veto power over each other's actions. The year of their service was known by their names: for instance, the year commonly called 59 BC was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar"). In Latin, ''consules'' means "those who walk together". If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle), another would be elected, and be known as a suffect consul (''cos. suff.''). The office of consul was believed to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, although the early history is partly legend, and the succession of consuls is not continuous in the 5th century BC. Consuls executed both religious and military duties; the reading of the auguries was an essential step before leading armies into the field. According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians; not until 367 BC did the plebeians win the right to stand for office, when the lex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was thereby elected the following year. Modern historians, however, have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the Early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders), noting for instance that about thirty per cent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. During times of war, the primary criterion for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the ''cursus honorum'', the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman. When Augustus Caesar established the Empire, he changed the nature of the office, stripping it of most of its powers. While still a great honor and a requirement for other offices, many consuls would resign part way through the year to allow other men to finish their term as suffects. Those who held the office on January 1, known as the consules ordinarii, had the honor of associating their names with that year. As a result, about half of the men who held the rank of praetor could also reach the consulship. Sometimes these suffect consuls would in turn resign, and another suffect would be appointed. This reached its extreme under Commodus, when in 190 twenty-five men held the consulship. Under the Empire, Emperors frequently appointed themselves, protégés, or relatives without regard to the age requirements. For example, Flavius Augustus Honorius was given the consulship at birth. Holding the consulship was apparently such an honor that the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins. One of the reforms of Constantine I of the Roman Empire was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome, and the other to Constantinople. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I, the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls— although one emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. As a result, after the formal end of the Roman Empire in the West, many years would be named for only a single consul. This rank was finally allowed to lapse in the reign of Justinian: first with the consul of Rome in 534, Decius Paulinus, then the consul of Constantinople in 541, Flavius Basilius Junior. For a complete list of Roman consuls, see: * List of Republican Roman Consuls (before 33 BC) * List of early imperial Roman consuls (33 BC‑192) * List of late imperial Roman consuls (after AD 192) ===French consuls=== In 1799, revolutionary France enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon three officials that bore the title "consul". In reality, however, the state was de facto under control of the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, although in 1802 Bonaparte was declared First Consul for life (lifetime consulate was introduced for Second and Third Consuls as well). The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared Emperor of the French in 1804. == See also == * List of Ancient Rome-related topics * Political institutions of Rome Ancient Roman titles Military ranks la:Consul
Consul
Putting a list of all of the Roman Consuls at the end of this article is a Bad Idea. This list must needs be placed in its own article. I've been meaning to do this, but lack of time (I've been caught up in a nasty fight over another website I contribute to) & my desired goal of having a complete list from 508 BC to at least AD 500 requires a lot more research than I am able to do right now, both have kept me from providing the necessary article. So I've reverted to an older article. However, the content in the Consul list here needs preserving, so I'm leaving this article complete until I can migrate enough of the content to allow me to delete this redundant 80% -- & make a far shorter article. The problem here is not a need for more material: it's that we have a valuable contribution that needs some migration into a more wieldly format. Please bear with me while I make this happen. -- User:Llywrch 03:01 Jan 13, 2003 (UTC) ---- Because the complete consul list would be extrememly long (Wikipedia sends up a warning whenever an article is over 32Kb), I've split the list into three parts -- Republican, Early Imperial & Late Imperial. I hope I've split the list in the right places & did not introduce too many errors in the compilation. -- User:Llywrch 00:48 Mar 24, 2003 (UTC) ---- (Copied from User:Llywrch talk page:) :For everybody's info -- The best source (and most authoritative still) for who Romans are and what offices they held is the Prosopographia Imperii Romani (ed. Mommsen et al. IIRC). This should really be the final arbiter, unless there is a more recent and well-argued scholarly source. User:JHK 17:27 7 Jun 2003 (UTC) == Patricians and plebeians == Reading through Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Ancient Rome (2003 edition), the authors question the traditional notion of the early Republic's political history as being a gradual struggle for the plebeians to attain equality with the patricians. Specifically to this article, it mentions that about 30 per cent of the consuls prior to 366BC had plebeian names. Unfortunately the article isn't annotated so I can't tell exactly what their source is; but the most likely sources from the bibliography for the early Republic would appear to be *E. Stuart Staveley, "Forschungsbericht: The Constitution of the Roman Republic 1940-1954", ''Historia'', 5:74-122 (1956) *E. Stuart Staveley, "The Nature and Aims of the Patriciate", ''Historia'', 32:24-57 (1983) *Kurt A. Raaflaub (ed.), ''Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders'' (1986) *Richard E. Mitchell, ''Patricians and Plebeians: The Origin of the Roman State'' (1990) Anyone have any perspective on this, or know scholarship's current opinion on the traditional story of class struggle?User:Binabik80 02:14, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC) :Try plebs and Conflict of the Orders. Mitchell's book is pretty much current, growing out of the conference proceedings mentioned at "Conflict". Tim Cornell's book on early Rome is good too, didn't get much chance to sift it into WP before it had to go back to the library, need to get it out again. User:Stan Shebs 13:19, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC) ::Okay then, I'm going to add a note to that effect in the article.User:Binabik80 15:04, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)
Consul
New registered user to Wikipedia, but longtime lurker. ==Contributions== ===Creations=== Battlestar - The show Battlestar Galactica had its own article, but I thought the individual ship deserved one, too. Twelve Colonies - A page intended to describe the Twelve Colonies of Man, also from Battlestar Galactica. The Destruction of the Twelve Colonies - Hopefully the beginning of a chain of articles detailing the major battles in Battlestar Galactica. President Adar - A lame little bit on the ill-fated President of the Twelve Colonies. I'll put in a picture from my DVDs someday. Basestar - My first Cylon article. ===Edits=== Saugus - I added a little about the Saugus Iron Works, a very important historical site. I also added some information on the Theatre Company of Saugus. Cylon (Battlestar Galactica) - Fixed up the Cylon model list. Battlestar Galactica - Fixed some accuracy errors.
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C
CA | CB | CD | CE | CF | CG | CH | CI | CJ | CK | CL | CM | CN | CO | CP | CR | CS | CT | CU | CW | CX | CY | CZ |Words begining with Consul:
Consul
Consul
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Consulate_general
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Consulier_GTP
Consulier_Industries
Consuls
Consulship
Consultancy
Consultant
Consultants
Consultation_of_Older_and_Younger_Adults_for_Social_Change
Consultation_on_Church_Union
Consultation_procedure
Consultative_Committee_for_International_Telegraphy_and_Telephony
Consultative_Group_on_Indonesia
Consultative_Group_on_Indonesia
Consultative_Group_on_International_Agricultural_Research
Consultative_Status
Consulting
Consulting_firm
Consulting_software_engineer
Consul_General
Consul_general
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