
#REDIRECT Cognitive science
Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (trait) (e.g. Luger 1994). Practically every introduction to cognitive science also stresses that it is highly interdisciplinary; it is often said to consist of, take part in, and collaborate with psychology (especially cognitive psychology), artificial intelligence, linguistics and psycholinguistics, philosophy (especially philosophy of mind), neuroscience, logic, robotics, anthropology and biology (including biomechanics). ==Overview== Cognitive science tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do; thus it has an objective, observer-independent existence. Cognitive science is usually seen as compatible with and interdependent with the physical sciences, and makes frequent use of the scientific method, as well as simulation or model (abstract), often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior. Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the inter-disciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed. Cognitive science has much to its credit. Among other accomplishments, it has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics, and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence firmly known in philosophy of language and epistemology - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. === ''Cognitive'' science? === The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms." (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999) This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth conditional semantics. (Nonetheless, that interpretation would bring one close to the historically dominant school of thought within cognitive science on the nature of cognition - that it is essentially symbolic, propositional, and logical.) The earliest entries for the word "''cognitive''" in the Oxford English Dictionary take it to mean roughly ''pertaining to "to the action or process of knowing"''. The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Plato theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato. ==Philosophy== Many but not all who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalism (philosophy of mind) view of mind/intelligence, which means that, at least in theory, they study mind and intelligence from the perspective that these attributes could perhaps (at least someday) be properly attributed not only to human beings but also to, say, other animal species, alien life forms or particularly advanced computer sytems. This perspective is one of the reasons the term "cognitive science" is not exactly coextensive with neuroscience, psychology, or some combination of the two. ===Theories=== *dualism *materialism *functionalism (philosophy of mind) *mind/brain identity *quantum mind *''Modularity of Mind'' ====Mind/brain identity theory==== The mind/brain identity theory is the idea that, whatever "mind" and "intelligence" are, they are rooted strictly in the brain, and do not make use of, depend on, or interact with anything non-physical. Nonetheless, there is reasonable consensus that there is sense in talking about the organization of the mind without talking about the organization of the brain, and that cognitive scientists are not simply neuroscientists. Often the justification for this takes place by reference to different levels of analysis. A cognitive scientist is likely to assert that what he says about reasoning is true at the symbolic level of abstraction, while what the neuroscientist says is true at the physical level implementing the symbolic level (much like a computer as a physical object implements a virtual machine on which a word-processor runs). An exploration of this is found in the Chinese Room argument, which proposes a gedanken experiment to elucidate potential loci for "cognition". ====Quantum mind theory==== There exist several different Quantum mind. In one class, the brain is considered a Quantum theory machine; in another, the brain is a classical machine that reduces the universal consciousness function. ==Psychology== Particular subtopics of cognitive science arguably include perception, attention, consciousness and memory. However, these are all long established fields within psychology, and there is a constant risk that cognitive scientists will merely reinvent discarded psychological analyses under a new vocabulary. As described, cognitive science is an expansive field. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic which might bear on the nature and operation of the mind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often on the basis of key philosophical conflicts. Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the importance of investigating them. === Experimental methods === * Reaction time: The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial and not parallel processing. * Psychophysics: Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique which have been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgements of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. ** sameness judgements for colors, tones, textures, etc. ** threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc. * Brain imagery: analyzing activity within the brain while performing various cognitive tasks. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. ** EEG: Electroencepholography (EEG) measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution. ** functional MRI: fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is correlated with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution. ** Positron emission tomography PET uses a radioactive isotope, usually in the form of glucose, which is injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than others. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution. ** Optical imaging: This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflect light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains. * Scores/wins/losses in games * Recording bodily movements in response to a task (e.g. walking towards an object) * Eye tracking: This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. === Key findings === (partial list) Discovery of systemic human cognitive bias, usually credited to Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, 1967. Basis of behavioral finance. Assertion of equivalence of Euler's identity (basis of complex analysis in mathematics) with basic cognitive processes, George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez, 2000. Basis of the cognitive science of mathematics. === Theories === * Cognitive response theory * Cognitive dissonance theory * Cognitive consistency theory * Cognitive science of mathematics * Propaganda * Attitude (psychology) and Affection ==Linguistics== Linguists find on one hand that humans—even the young and the uneducated—form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complicated rule systems. On the other hand, the same people are remarkably inept at identifying the rules that lie behind their own speech. Thus, linguists must resort to very indirect methods to determine what those rules might be. If speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration. The primary basis of Chomskyan psycholinguistics is the grammaticality judgement. A native speaker of a language is asked if a sentence is grammatically correct, independent of whether or not it makes sense. For example, the sentence 'colorless green ideas sleep furiously' is nonsensical, but is felt by native speakers of English to be grammatically correct. Collections of these grammaticality judgements are used to generate putative formal (purely syntactic) descriptions of human languages in terms of grammars. (For details, see formal language, Chomsky hierarchy.) These grammars, in turn, are held to describe the speaker's linguistic competence. Other approaches to language - notably those known as cognitive linguistics - have characterized this approach as too artificial (at least as an exclusive linguistic program), questioning the meaning of grammaticality judgements, a much too frequent emphasis on the English language, and the exclusive use of orthographic (written) rather than verbal sentences. Cognitive linguists argue that linguistic knowledge is no different from any other type of cognitive system and is subject to the same conceptualization processes; and that linguistic knowledge is acquired just like any other type of human knowledge - namely, through experience. As of today cognitive linguistics is considered a proper cognitive approach to language rather than Noam Chomsky. ==Artificial intelligence== ''Main article:'' Artificial intelligence ===Goals=== Strong AI versus Weak AI * simulation vs recreation Turing test. ===Theories=== ''Symbolic vs Connectionist approaches'' There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is "best" viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures, such as "symbols", "schemas", "plans", and rules. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that seem to make up the human brain. ====Symbolicism/GOFAI==== Artificial intelligence. Turing machine. Chinese Room. Minds, Machines and Gödel. ====Connectionism==== Connectionism. Neural nets. ====Dynamical systems==== Dynamical systems theory of cognition (special application of dynamical systems theory). ====Universalist Tendency==== is also a proposed theoretical tendency, suspected to become prominent over the next century, in which people are expected to create overarching theories of everything that attempt to combine findings from various disciplines to explain the deeper processes of life. == Notable researchers in cognitive science and related fields == * Margaret ('Maggie') Boden * David Chalmers * Noam Chomsky * Kenneth Craik * Antonio Damasio * Daniel Dennett * Gerald Edelman * John Carew Eccles * Leon Festinger * Jerry Fodor * Tim van Gelder * Friedrich Hayek * Douglas Hofstadter * Edwin Hutchins * Daniel Kahneman * David Kirsh * George Lakoff * Colin McGinn * George A. Miller * Marvin Minsky * Rafael E. Núñez * Seymour Papert * Roger Penrose * Steven Pinker * Karl Popper * Jonathan Potter * Karl Pribram * Vilayanur S. Ramachandran * Eleanor Rosch * John Searle * Herbert Simon * Olaf Sporns * Anne Treisman == See also == * Neural Darwinism * Society of Mind theory * cognitive science of mathematics * cognitive bias * cognitive linguistics * cognitive neuropsychology * cognitive neuroscience * notation bias * neural networks * neuropsychology * computational neuroscience * simulated consciousness * artificial consciousness * narrative psychology/psychology of narrative [http://www.stolaf.edu/people/thorshm/390-narrative-course-descr.htm] * List_of_publications_in_biology#Cognitive science == External links == === Definitions === * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Cognitive Science] * [http://www.aiknow.net aiKnow: Cognitive Artificial Intelligence] === List of People === * [http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/cogsci.html List of leading thinkers in cognitive science] === Institutions === * [http://cogsci.bandungfe.net Bandung Fe Institute:Cognitive Science] * [http://www.cog.brown.edu/ Brown University, Department of Cognitive and Linguistic Science] * [http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/ University of California, San Diego, Department of Cognitive Science] * [http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/ University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics] (Centre for Cognitive Science has been merged into this school) * [http://cognitivescience.georgetown.edu/ Georgetown University Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science] * [http://www.cogs.indiana.edu Indiana University, Program in Cognitive Science] * [http://www.biocognitive.com/ Institute of Biocognitive Psychology] * [http://cognet.mit.edu/ MIT CogNet] * [http://www.ircs.upenn.edu/ University of Pennsylvania, Institute for Research in Cognitive Science] * [http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/ Rutgers University, Center for Cognitive Science] * [http://www.sfu.ca/cognitive-science/ Simon Fraser University, Cognitive Science] == References == * George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. ''Philosophy In The Flesh.'' Basic Books, 1999. * Luger, George. ''Cognitive science : the science of intelligent systems''. San Diego : Academic Press, c1994 * Bechtel, W. et. al. Ed. (1999). A Companion to Cognitive Science. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, Massachusetts. Blackwell Publishers. * Gardner, Howard. (1985). The Minds New Science. Basic Books. * Baumgartner, P., et. al. Eds. (1995). Speaking Minds: Interviews With Twenty Eminent Cognitive Scientists. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. * Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. * Gazzanija, M. S., Ed. Conversations in the Cognitive Neursciences. New York, THe MIT Press. Cognitive science Interdisciplinary fields Science li:Cognisieweitesjap ms:Sains kognitif simple:Cognitive science
The article may be right that certain topics are "frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright" from cognitive science. The article was incorrect, however, in claiming that "connectionism", "nonsymbolic or nonpropositional AI", and "non-mathematical problem solving" are less than mainstream topics. This may have been true in past decades, but these particular topics are now quite mainstream. I've this deleted these three from the list of neglected topics. --User:Ryguasu 11:18, 1 Sep 2003 (UTC) ---- I've deleted the italicized bit in the following claim: :Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the inter-disciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed ''(for example, it is hard to imagine much useful issue from a relationship with linguistics which does not take up a Chomskyan program''.) This is simply not a helpful statement without clarifying what part of Chomsky is so essential here. It is quite ''easy'', for example, to imagine a relationship with linguists who do not subscribe to, say, Chomsky's old government and binding theory ("GB") or his new "minimalist program". --User:Ryguasu 11:18, 1 Sep 2003 (UTC) ---- I've removed the following passage, because it now seems redundant: :It should again be realized that the interdisciplinary scope of cognitive science does not extend into all areas which are concerned with the nature and operation of the mind ''(nor should it)'', though a broader perspective is always possible. Note, though, that the italicized portion is strange; if many people define cognitive science as the study of the mind, then what good comes from claiming that the field need not consider "all areas concerned with the nature and operation of the mind"? What areas are less important? --User:Ryguasu 11:18, 1 Sep 2003 (UTC) ----------- There needs to be much more on the theory of measurement and foundations of measurement here - this is actually the link between the basic work on cognitive psych by say Tversky/Kahneman, and the current work on phil of math by Lakoff/Nunez. Without a paragraph on this, it's hard to see how these are linked. Trolls would add it, but, trolls keep correcting stuff, and sysops vandalize it back to being wrong. So, from now on, you will have to fix such stuff yourself. Trolls will keep pointing it out on talk pages mostly. ---- Has anyone else have a copy of the MIT encyclopeda of cognitive sciences? Pulling some ideas on how to organize this article may help, as well as some of the broad issues with it. I will take a look and make some recommendations. User:ShaunMacPherson ---- ''One of the most universally affirmed ideas of cognitive science is the importance of the unconscious mind;'' This is just wrong. I am an undergrad majoring in cognitive science, and we don't even discuss the unconscious mind as a topic. This statement misleads the reader into thinking that the concept of the unconscious mind is central to cognitive science. Moreover, isn't the conscious/unconscious dichotomy passe? Also, I'm pretty sure most cognitive scientists don't believe in the Mind/Brain Identity theory, but rather a form of functionalism. (25 Feb 2004) ---- There are two schools of Cognitive Science: 1st Generation Cognitive Science, founded in the teachings of ancient greece and the western philosophical tradition 2nd Generation Cognitive, founded as a rejection of the a priori philosophical assumptions that make up the western philosophical tradition, and that are being proven by science to be incorrect. 2nd Gen CS is backed up by a lot of neuroscience and psychological research. 1st Gen CS is essentially mystical mumbo jumbo. It is important that a distinction is made. I recommend reading "philosophy in the flesh by Lakoff and Johnson" : Then maybe we should make a disambiguation page? (Even though some aspect of 1st Gen CS is mentioned in the article, under the heading ''Cognitive science?'') == Maggie Boden == I changed her name to 'Margaret' because that's the name she uses in articles and books. == Introduction text & balance == I changed the introduction with regards to the disciplines mentioned and their order. I deleted the 'especially neural networks' comment because cognitive science still draws a lot of inspiration from AI work that's based on other paradigms (cf. some GOFAI in language processing, Bayesian networks), and it's not necessary to make a division in the introduction. I also deleted philosophy of mathematics and philosophy of science because both seem of minor importance to me compared with philosophy of mind (philosophy of language could easily go in that list, and then you would have no less than 4 subfields). I added logic; how succesful logical methods are is disputed, but logic is nonetheless very important in the development of cognitive science. I also rearranged the order from what I thought most important to least important; this is of course controversial and highly subjective, and I'm open for suggestions. It might be more natural to stick related fields together.
As for the article, it covers the most important topics but it's very clear that it's written by people with different perspectives. Maybe we could work to make it more coherent, removing both symbolicist as well as embedded biases. It also needs expansion, I intend to add some to the AI section, and maybe to the linguistic section. User:Junes 15:11, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC) == added names == Popper and Eccles, for ''The Self and It's Brain'', and ''Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem''. Hayek, for ''The Sensory Order'' In the case of Hayek, Virginia Postrel quotes Pinker in an article in the Boston Globe: http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2004/01/11/friedrich_the_great/ Hayek's 1952 book, "The Sensory Order," often considered his most difficult work, foreshadowed theories of cognitive science developed decades later. "Hayek posited spontaneous order in the brain arising out of distributed networks of simple units (neurons) exchanging local signals," says Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker. "Hayek was way ahead of his time in pushing this idea. It became popular in cognitive science, beginning in the mid-1980s, under the names `connectionism' and `parallel distributed processing.' Remarkably, Hayek is never cited." --User:PWhittle 22:17, 30 May 2005 (UTC) == Shockingly bad == I wonder if it is really worth trying to make this article better by making small changes, as some have tried to do. The organization is extremely bad, as is most of the actual content. It might actually be more productive to start from scratch. -- ''unsigned by 13:50, June 17, 2005 (UTC) == Universalist Tendency == What in the world does Universalist Tendency have to do with cogsci? It should be removed.
Interdisciplinary fields Science
See other meanings of words starting from letter:
Words begining with Cognitive_science:
Cognitive_Science
Cognitive_science
Cognitive_science
Cognitive_science
Cognitive_sciences
Cognitive_science_of_mathematics
Cognitive_science_of_mathematics
Cognitive Science
#REDIRECT Cognitive science
Cognitive science
Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (trait) (e.g. Luger 1994). Practically every introduction to cognitive science also stresses that it is highly interdisciplinary; it is often said to consist of, take part in, and collaborate with psychology (especially cognitive psychology), artificial intelligence, linguistics and psycholinguistics, philosophy (especially philosophy of mind), neuroscience, logic, robotics, anthropology and biology (including biomechanics). ==Overview== Cognitive science tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do; thus it has an objective, observer-independent existence. Cognitive science is usually seen as compatible with and interdependent with the physical sciences, and makes frequent use of the scientific method, as well as simulation or model (abstract), often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior. Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the inter-disciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed. Cognitive science has much to its credit. Among other accomplishments, it has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics, and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence firmly known in philosophy of language and epistemology - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. === ''Cognitive'' science? === The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms." (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999) This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth conditional semantics. (Nonetheless, that interpretation would bring one close to the historically dominant school of thought within cognitive science on the nature of cognition - that it is essentially symbolic, propositional, and logical.) The earliest entries for the word "''cognitive''" in the Oxford English Dictionary take it to mean roughly ''pertaining to "to the action or process of knowing"''. The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Plato theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato. ==Philosophy== Many but not all who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalism (philosophy of mind) view of mind/intelligence, which means that, at least in theory, they study mind and intelligence from the perspective that these attributes could perhaps (at least someday) be properly attributed not only to human beings but also to, say, other animal species, alien life forms or particularly advanced computer sytems. This perspective is one of the reasons the term "cognitive science" is not exactly coextensive with neuroscience, psychology, or some combination of the two. ===Theories=== *dualism *materialism *functionalism (philosophy of mind) *mind/brain identity *quantum mind *''Modularity of Mind'' ====Mind/brain identity theory==== The mind/brain identity theory is the idea that, whatever "mind" and "intelligence" are, they are rooted strictly in the brain, and do not make use of, depend on, or interact with anything non-physical. Nonetheless, there is reasonable consensus that there is sense in talking about the organization of the mind without talking about the organization of the brain, and that cognitive scientists are not simply neuroscientists. Often the justification for this takes place by reference to different levels of analysis. A cognitive scientist is likely to assert that what he says about reasoning is true at the symbolic level of abstraction, while what the neuroscientist says is true at the physical level implementing the symbolic level (much like a computer as a physical object implements a virtual machine on which a word-processor runs). An exploration of this is found in the Chinese Room argument, which proposes a gedanken experiment to elucidate potential loci for "cognition". ====Quantum mind theory==== There exist several different Quantum mind. In one class, the brain is considered a Quantum theory machine; in another, the brain is a classical machine that reduces the universal consciousness function. ==Psychology== Particular subtopics of cognitive science arguably include perception, attention, consciousness and memory. However, these are all long established fields within psychology, and there is a constant risk that cognitive scientists will merely reinvent discarded psychological analyses under a new vocabulary. As described, cognitive science is an expansive field. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic which might bear on the nature and operation of the mind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often on the basis of key philosophical conflicts. Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the importance of investigating them. === Experimental methods === * Reaction time: The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial and not parallel processing. * Psychophysics: Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique which have been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgements of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. ** sameness judgements for colors, tones, textures, etc. ** threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc. * Brain imagery: analyzing activity within the brain while performing various cognitive tasks. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. ** EEG: Electroencepholography (EEG) measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution. ** functional MRI: fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is correlated with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution. ** Positron emission tomography PET uses a radioactive isotope, usually in the form of glucose, which is injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than others. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution. ** Optical imaging: This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflect light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains. * Scores/wins/losses in games * Recording bodily movements in response to a task (e.g. walking towards an object) * Eye tracking: This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. === Key findings === (partial list) Discovery of systemic human cognitive bias, usually credited to Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, 1967. Basis of behavioral finance. Assertion of equivalence of Euler's identity (basis of complex analysis in mathematics) with basic cognitive processes, George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez, 2000. Basis of the cognitive science of mathematics. === Theories === * Cognitive response theory * Cognitive dissonance theory * Cognitive consistency theory * Cognitive science of mathematics * Propaganda * Attitude (psychology) and Affection ==Linguistics== Linguists find on one hand that humans—even the young and the uneducated—form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complicated rule systems. On the other hand, the same people are remarkably inept at identifying the rules that lie behind their own speech. Thus, linguists must resort to very indirect methods to determine what those rules might be. If speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration. The primary basis of Chomskyan psycholinguistics is the grammaticality judgement. A native speaker of a language is asked if a sentence is grammatically correct, independent of whether or not it makes sense. For example, the sentence 'colorless green ideas sleep furiously' is nonsensical, but is felt by native speakers of English to be grammatically correct. Collections of these grammaticality judgements are used to generate putative formal (purely syntactic) descriptions of human languages in terms of grammars. (For details, see formal language, Chomsky hierarchy.) These grammars, in turn, are held to describe the speaker's linguistic competence. Other approaches to language - notably those known as cognitive linguistics - have characterized this approach as too artificial (at least as an exclusive linguistic program), questioning the meaning of grammaticality judgements, a much too frequent emphasis on the English language, and the exclusive use of orthographic (written) rather than verbal sentences. Cognitive linguists argue that linguistic knowledge is no different from any other type of cognitive system and is subject to the same conceptualization processes; and that linguistic knowledge is acquired just like any other type of human knowledge - namely, through experience. As of today cognitive linguistics is considered a proper cognitive approach to language rather than Noam Chomsky. ==Artificial intelligence== ''Main article:'' Artificial intelligence ===Goals=== Strong AI versus Weak AI * simulation vs recreation Turing test. ===Theories=== ''Symbolic vs Connectionist approaches'' There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is "best" viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures, such as "symbols", "schemas", "plans", and rules. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that seem to make up the human brain. ====Symbolicism/GOFAI==== Artificial intelligence. Turing machine. Chinese Room. Minds, Machines and Gödel. ====Connectionism==== Connectionism. Neural nets. ====Dynamical systems==== Dynamical systems theory of cognition (special application of dynamical systems theory). ====Universalist Tendency==== is also a proposed theoretical tendency, suspected to become prominent over the next century, in which people are expected to create overarching theories of everything that attempt to combine findings from various disciplines to explain the deeper processes of life. == Notable researchers in cognitive science and related fields == * Margaret ('Maggie') Boden * David Chalmers * Noam Chomsky * Kenneth Craik * Antonio Damasio * Daniel Dennett * Gerald Edelman * John Carew Eccles * Leon Festinger * Jerry Fodor * Tim van Gelder * Friedrich Hayek * Douglas Hofstadter * Edwin Hutchins * Daniel Kahneman * David Kirsh * George Lakoff * Colin McGinn * George A. Miller * Marvin Minsky * Rafael E. Núñez * Seymour Papert * Roger Penrose * Steven Pinker * Karl Popper * Jonathan Potter * Karl Pribram * Vilayanur S. Ramachandran * Eleanor Rosch * John Searle * Herbert Simon * Olaf Sporns * Anne Treisman == See also == * Neural Darwinism * Society of Mind theory * cognitive science of mathematics * cognitive bias * cognitive linguistics * cognitive neuropsychology * cognitive neuroscience * notation bias * neural networks * neuropsychology * computational neuroscience * simulated consciousness * artificial consciousness * narrative psychology/psychology of narrative [http://www.stolaf.edu/people/thorshm/390-narrative-course-descr.htm] * List_of_publications_in_biology#Cognitive science == External links == === Definitions === * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Cognitive Science] * [http://www.aiknow.net aiKnow: Cognitive Artificial Intelligence] === List of People === * [http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/cogsci.html List of leading thinkers in cognitive science] === Institutions === * [http://cogsci.bandungfe.net Bandung Fe Institute:Cognitive Science] * [http://www.cog.brown.edu/ Brown University, Department of Cognitive and Linguistic Science] * [http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/ University of California, San Diego, Department of Cognitive Science] * [http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/ University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics] (Centre for Cognitive Science has been merged into this school) * [http://cognitivescience.georgetown.edu/ Georgetown University Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science] * [http://www.cogs.indiana.edu Indiana University, Program in Cognitive Science] * [http://www.biocognitive.com/ Institute of Biocognitive Psychology] * [http://cognet.mit.edu/ MIT CogNet] * [http://www.ircs.upenn.edu/ University of Pennsylvania, Institute for Research in Cognitive Science] * [http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/ Rutgers University, Center for Cognitive Science] * [http://www.sfu.ca/cognitive-science/ Simon Fraser University, Cognitive Science] == References == * George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. ''Philosophy In The Flesh.'' Basic Books, 1999. * Luger, George. ''Cognitive science : the science of intelligent systems''. San Diego : Academic Press, c1994 * Bechtel, W. et. al. Ed. (1999). A Companion to Cognitive Science. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, Massachusetts. Blackwell Publishers. * Gardner, Howard. (1985). The Minds New Science. Basic Books. * Baumgartner, P., et. al. Eds. (1995). Speaking Minds: Interviews With Twenty Eminent Cognitive Scientists. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. * Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. * Gazzanija, M. S., Ed. Conversations in the Cognitive Neursciences. New York, THe MIT Press. Cognitive science Interdisciplinary fields Science li:Cognisieweitesjap ms:Sains kognitif simple:Cognitive science
Cognitive science
The article may be right that certain topics are "frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright" from cognitive science. The article was incorrect, however, in claiming that "connectionism", "nonsymbolic or nonpropositional AI", and "non-mathematical problem solving" are less than mainstream topics. This may have been true in past decades, but these particular topics are now quite mainstream. I've this deleted these three from the list of neglected topics. --User:Ryguasu 11:18, 1 Sep 2003 (UTC) ---- I've deleted the italicized bit in the following claim: :Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the inter-disciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed ''(for example, it is hard to imagine much useful issue from a relationship with linguistics which does not take up a Chomskyan program''.) This is simply not a helpful statement without clarifying what part of Chomsky is so essential here. It is quite ''easy'', for example, to imagine a relationship with linguists who do not subscribe to, say, Chomsky's old government and binding theory ("GB") or his new "minimalist program". --User:Ryguasu 11:18, 1 Sep 2003 (UTC) ---- I've removed the following passage, because it now seems redundant: :It should again be realized that the interdisciplinary scope of cognitive science does not extend into all areas which are concerned with the nature and operation of the mind ''(nor should it)'', though a broader perspective is always possible. Note, though, that the italicized portion is strange; if many people define cognitive science as the study of the mind, then what good comes from claiming that the field need not consider "all areas concerned with the nature and operation of the mind"? What areas are less important? --User:Ryguasu 11:18, 1 Sep 2003 (UTC) ----------- There needs to be much more on the theory of measurement and foundations of measurement here - this is actually the link between the basic work on cognitive psych by say Tversky/Kahneman, and the current work on phil of math by Lakoff/Nunez. Without a paragraph on this, it's hard to see how these are linked. Trolls would add it, but, trolls keep correcting stuff, and sysops vandalize it back to being wrong. So, from now on, you will have to fix such stuff yourself. Trolls will keep pointing it out on talk pages mostly. ---- Has anyone else have a copy of the MIT encyclopeda of cognitive sciences? Pulling some ideas on how to organize this article may help, as well as some of the broad issues with it. I will take a look and make some recommendations. User:ShaunMacPherson ---- ''One of the most universally affirmed ideas of cognitive science is the importance of the unconscious mind;'' This is just wrong. I am an undergrad majoring in cognitive science, and we don't even discuss the unconscious mind as a topic. This statement misleads the reader into thinking that the concept of the unconscious mind is central to cognitive science. Moreover, isn't the conscious/unconscious dichotomy passe? Also, I'm pretty sure most cognitive scientists don't believe in the Mind/Brain Identity theory, but rather a form of functionalism. (25 Feb 2004) ---- There are two schools of Cognitive Science: 1st Generation Cognitive Science, founded in the teachings of ancient greece and the western philosophical tradition 2nd Generation Cognitive, founded as a rejection of the a priori philosophical assumptions that make up the western philosophical tradition, and that are being proven by science to be incorrect. 2nd Gen CS is backed up by a lot of neuroscience and psychological research. 1st Gen CS is essentially mystical mumbo jumbo. It is important that a distinction is made. I recommend reading "philosophy in the flesh by Lakoff and Johnson" : Then maybe we should make a disambiguation page? (Even though some aspect of 1st Gen CS is mentioned in the article, under the heading ''Cognitive science?'') == Maggie Boden == I changed her name to 'Margaret' because that's the name she uses in articles and books. == Introduction text & balance == I changed the introduction with regards to the disciplines mentioned and their order. I deleted the 'especially neural networks' comment because cognitive science still draws a lot of inspiration from AI work that's based on other paradigms (cf. some GOFAI in language processing, Bayesian networks), and it's not necessary to make a division in the introduction. I also deleted philosophy of mathematics and philosophy of science because both seem of minor importance to me compared with philosophy of mind (philosophy of language could easily go in that list, and then you would have no less than 4 subfields). I added logic; how succesful logical methods are is disputed, but logic is nonetheless very important in the development of cognitive science. I also rearranged the order from what I thought most important to least important; this is of course controversial and highly subjective, and I'm open for suggestions. It might be more natural to stick related fields together.
As for the article, it covers the most important topics but it's very clear that it's written by people with different perspectives. Maybe we could work to make it more coherent, removing both symbolicist as well as embedded biases. It also needs expansion, I intend to add some to the AI section, and maybe to the linguistic section. User:Junes 15:11, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC) == added names == Popper and Eccles, for ''The Self and It's Brain'', and ''Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem''. Hayek, for ''The Sensory Order'' In the case of Hayek, Virginia Postrel quotes Pinker in an article in the Boston Globe: http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2004/01/11/friedrich_the_great/ Hayek's 1952 book, "The Sensory Order," often considered his most difficult work, foreshadowed theories of cognitive science developed decades later. "Hayek posited spontaneous order in the brain arising out of distributed networks of simple units (neurons) exchanging local signals," says Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker. "Hayek was way ahead of his time in pushing this idea. It became popular in cognitive science, beginning in the mid-1980s, under the names `connectionism' and `parallel distributed processing.' Remarkably, Hayek is never cited." --User:PWhittle 22:17, 30 May 2005 (UTC) == Shockingly bad == I wonder if it is really worth trying to make this article better by making small changes, as some have tried to do. The organization is extremely bad, as is most of the actual content. It might actually be more productive to start from scratch. -- ''unsigned by 13:50, June 17, 2005 (UTC) == Universalist Tendency == What in the world does Universalist Tendency have to do with cogsci? It should be removed.
Cognitive science
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