
Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the ''Ummah'', or community of Islam. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or ''Khalīfah'' () which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet Muhammad. Some Orientalists wrote the title as ''Khalîf''. The Caliph has often been referred to as ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' (أمير المؤمنين), or "Commander of the Faithful". The title has been defunct since 1924. Historically selected by committee, the holder of this title claims temporal and spiritual authority over all Muslims, but is not regarded as a possessor of a prophetic mission, as Muhammad is regarded in Islam as the final prophet. Modern understandings of the title of Caliph are varied. Some movements in modern Islamic philosophy have emphasized a protective dimension of Islamic leadership and social policy from an understanding of khalifa that equates roughly to "render stewardship" or "protect the same things as God". Many Islamist movements have argued for the necessity of re-establishing the institution of a single office whose occupant, as successor to Muhammad, would possess clear political, military, and legal standing as the global leader of the Muslims. Such an initiative has yet to gather much in the way of practical support in the Muslim world. The Sunnis identify the first four Caliphs, all close associates of Muhammad, as the '"rightly guided" caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib. It is important to understand, however, that the Sunnis and Shi'a Islam differ profoundly on the critical question of who the first Caliph of Islam should have been, and the subsequent legitimacy all later office holders. According to Sunni thought, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law, either the first or second male convert, was the legitimate succesor, inasmuch as he was elected into the office of the Caliphate in 632. The Shi'a, on the other hand, believe that legitimate authority belonged to Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali Ibn Abi Talib on the basis of his blood relation to the Prophet himself, and on the belief that he was designated by Muhammad as his successor. Following the conflict between the Fatimids and the Abbasids, other Muslim rulers began to claim the title of caliph. With the defeat of these peripheral caliphates, the caliphate of the Ottoman Empire began increasingly to be considered the undisputed primary caliphate. Thus, by the eve of the World War I, the Ottoman caliphate represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The rulers of the Ottoman state, however, only rarely used title of khalifa for political purposes. It is known that Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. At a later date, one of the last Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdulhamid II, used it as a tool against the European colonisation and occupation of countries with large Muslim populations. The last Ottoman (Uthmani) Khilafah title and powers were transferred from the Ottoman family line to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (parliament) on 3rd March 1924, meaning no individual could thereafter possess the title. The Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs ([http://www.diyanet.gov.tr the Diyanet]) still fulfills the duties of the khalifa within Turkey. In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to restore the Turkish Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularily strong in India, where it was a rallying point for Muslim communities. The absence of a single Muslim head of state is considered by some to be a violation of the Islamic legal code, the Shariah. Others insist that after the four rightful caliphs the office ceased to exist, meaning that those who claimed after that to be "khalifa" were actually "melik" (king). Muslims believe that the Caliphate is the application of Messengership of Prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, until Jesus and Muhammad) as the institution to protect and order the Muslims according the Law of God (in the Qur'an and the Universe), with the structure imitating the structure of Heaven (Mulkiyah/Government) and Earth (Ummah/People). Some parallels have been drawn between the offices of the caliphate and the Pope, but the relevancy of these comparisons are disputed. Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article. See Also: History of Islam == How the Caliphate Came to an End == ''See the article Demise of the Ottoman Caliphate''. The last Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on March 3, 1924, and the title has since been inactive. Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim World were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by Turkey, but none were successful. Sharif Hussein, a former Ottoman governor of the Hejaz who had conspired with the British during World War I and revolted against Istanbul, declared himself Caliph at Mecca two days after Turkey relinquished the title. But no one took his claim seriously, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the Saudis, a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. The last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful. A summit was convened in Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit’s resolutions. Though the title ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' was adopted by the King of Morocco and Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), an international organization founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. But the OIC has limited influence; many Muslims are not aware that the organization exists, and its resolutions are often ignored even by member nations. == Contemporary Muslim Attitudes toward the Caliphate == Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the Caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 80 years. The reasons for this are varied and complex. After World War I, most Muslim lands fell under foreign occupation. The Muslim World was subsequently reshaped along secular nationalist lines and heavily influenced by Western or socialist political philosophies. The role of mosques and the religious establishment was substantially reduced in most Muslim countries, leading to the emergence of political and military elites that viewed Islam as a personal matter and not a basis for political unity or a viable foundation for a modern state. Furthermore, the prevalence of old grudges and nationalist rivalries (particularly in the Arab world) have prevented large-scale interstate cooperation amongst Muslim states from taking place. Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims remain in favor of a Caliphate, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the Caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the Tablighi Jamaat identify a lack of spirituality and decline in religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim World's problems, and claim that the Caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which was based on Shia principles and did not deal with the issue of a global Caliphate. Though Islamist movements have gained momentum in recent years, most are locally oriented and do not outwardly call for a restoration of the Caliphate. Furthermore, such movements have as yet been unable to agree on a roadmap or a coherent model of Islamic governance, and dialog on this issue amongst Muslim intellectuals has been characterized by uncertainty and confusion amidst a broad range of viewpoints on what a modern Islamic state should look like. Mainstream Islamic institutions in Muslim countries today have generally not made the restoration of the Caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. == Famous caliphs == * Abu Bakr - First Four Righteously Guided Caliphs of the Sunnis. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars. * Umar ibn al-Khattab - Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persian Empire. * Uthman ibn Affan - Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels. * Ali ibn Abi Talib - Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict. * Muawiya I - First Umayyad caliph. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through all subsequent caliphates. * Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz - Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph. * Haroun al-Raschid - Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights. * Suleiman the Magnificent - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith. == Dynasties == The more important dynasties include: * The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661-750), followed by: * The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750-1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluke control) (1260-1517) * The Shi'ite Fatimids dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (not universally accepted; 909-1171) * The Umayyad Emirs of Cordoba, Spain, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliph of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929-1031) * The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145-1269) * The Ottomans (1453-1924) == List == Caliphate Titles Arabic words la:Calipha
with regard to the pro-Khomeini spin - can someone who is versed in such things verify that it is accurate? "The holder of this title claims rulership over all Muslims. The Caliph combines four roles that are often distinct in the Western world. These roles are: Spiritual leader of Muslims, the one who guides Muslims in new matters, Religious leader of Muslims, the one who enforces Sharia, Political leader of Muslims, the one who conducts relations with other states and administers the government, Military leader of Muslims, the one who orders and conducts military affairs, in particular those regarding the conflict between dar al-Islam and dar al-Harb. In the Catholic Church, the first two are combined in the office of the Pope. The last two are combined in military dictatorships. Islam may be unique in being the only system to combine all four." Someone needs to read about the history of the Papacy. The Papacy was once very politically involved, and we have had at least one "warrior pope". I disagree with this simplification and characterization of matters. In fact, all leaders combine all four roles listed above with varying emphasis. And in the west this was and still is worse. Take one example. The King/Queen of England was head of the Church of England, while Muslims have no church for the Caliph to rule over and historically the power was distinct after the first 4 caliphs. Second, the King of England enforced the laws of the state with all the power apparatus of a government, but the laws were mostly formulated by his will and decree. The Caliph also enforced the laws of the state, but the laws were not largely made by him but rather derived mostly by others from religious principles and texts acting as a modern constitution. Third, the King of England acted exactly as the Caliph in managing political issues within and foreign affairs without, as do all rulers. Fourth, all rulers are the ultimate commanders of the armed forces, be they of military background or not. This is true of all times. Even in modern day America, president Bush, or whoever, combines solidly the last 3 roles, and continuously gets involved with and shapes the first.User:A.Khalil 18:27, Mar 8, 2005 (UTC) == List/Table == Shouldn't we have a list that covers all Caliphs from Abubakar to Abdul Mejid II. Something like:
Caliph
Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the ''Ummah'', or community of Islam. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or ''Khalīfah'' () which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet Muhammad. Some Orientalists wrote the title as ''Khalîf''. The Caliph has often been referred to as ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' (أمير المؤمنين), or "Commander of the Faithful". The title has been defunct since 1924. Historically selected by committee, the holder of this title claims temporal and spiritual authority over all Muslims, but is not regarded as a possessor of a prophetic mission, as Muhammad is regarded in Islam as the final prophet. Modern understandings of the title of Caliph are varied. Some movements in modern Islamic philosophy have emphasized a protective dimension of Islamic leadership and social policy from an understanding of khalifa that equates roughly to "render stewardship" or "protect the same things as God". Many Islamist movements have argued for the necessity of re-establishing the institution of a single office whose occupant, as successor to Muhammad, would possess clear political, military, and legal standing as the global leader of the Muslims. Such an initiative has yet to gather much in the way of practical support in the Muslim world. The Sunnis identify the first four Caliphs, all close associates of Muhammad, as the '"rightly guided" caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib. It is important to understand, however, that the Sunnis and Shi'a Islam differ profoundly on the critical question of who the first Caliph of Islam should have been, and the subsequent legitimacy all later office holders. According to Sunni thought, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law, either the first or second male convert, was the legitimate succesor, inasmuch as he was elected into the office of the Caliphate in 632. The Shi'a, on the other hand, believe that legitimate authority belonged to Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali Ibn Abi Talib on the basis of his blood relation to the Prophet himself, and on the belief that he was designated by Muhammad as his successor. Following the conflict between the Fatimids and the Abbasids, other Muslim rulers began to claim the title of caliph. With the defeat of these peripheral caliphates, the caliphate of the Ottoman Empire began increasingly to be considered the undisputed primary caliphate. Thus, by the eve of the World War I, the Ottoman caliphate represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The rulers of the Ottoman state, however, only rarely used title of khalifa for political purposes. It is known that Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. At a later date, one of the last Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdulhamid II, used it as a tool against the European colonisation and occupation of countries with large Muslim populations. The last Ottoman (Uthmani) Khilafah title and powers were transferred from the Ottoman family line to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (parliament) on 3rd March 1924, meaning no individual could thereafter possess the title. The Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs ([http://www.diyanet.gov.tr the Diyanet]) still fulfills the duties of the khalifa within Turkey. In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to restore the Turkish Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularily strong in India, where it was a rallying point for Muslim communities. The absence of a single Muslim head of state is considered by some to be a violation of the Islamic legal code, the Shariah. Others insist that after the four rightful caliphs the office ceased to exist, meaning that those who claimed after that to be "khalifa" were actually "melik" (king). Muslims believe that the Caliphate is the application of Messengership of Prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, until Jesus and Muhammad) as the institution to protect and order the Muslims according the Law of God (in the Qur'an and the Universe), with the structure imitating the structure of Heaven (Mulkiyah/Government) and Earth (Ummah/People). Some parallels have been drawn between the offices of the caliphate and the Pope, but the relevancy of these comparisons are disputed. Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article. See Also: History of Islam == How the Caliphate Came to an End == ''See the article Demise of the Ottoman Caliphate''. The last Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on March 3, 1924, and the title has since been inactive. Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim World were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by Turkey, but none were successful. Sharif Hussein, a former Ottoman governor of the Hejaz who had conspired with the British during World War I and revolted against Istanbul, declared himself Caliph at Mecca two days after Turkey relinquished the title. But no one took his claim seriously, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the Saudis, a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. The last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful. A summit was convened in Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit’s resolutions. Though the title ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' was adopted by the King of Morocco and Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), an international organization founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. But the OIC has limited influence; many Muslims are not aware that the organization exists, and its resolutions are often ignored even by member nations. == Contemporary Muslim Attitudes toward the Caliphate == Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the Caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 80 years. The reasons for this are varied and complex. After World War I, most Muslim lands fell under foreign occupation. The Muslim World was subsequently reshaped along secular nationalist lines and heavily influenced by Western or socialist political philosophies. The role of mosques and the religious establishment was substantially reduced in most Muslim countries, leading to the emergence of political and military elites that viewed Islam as a personal matter and not a basis for political unity or a viable foundation for a modern state. Furthermore, the prevalence of old grudges and nationalist rivalries (particularly in the Arab world) have prevented large-scale interstate cooperation amongst Muslim states from taking place. Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims remain in favor of a Caliphate, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the Caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the Tablighi Jamaat identify a lack of spirituality and decline in religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim World's problems, and claim that the Caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which was based on Shia principles and did not deal with the issue of a global Caliphate. Though Islamist movements have gained momentum in recent years, most are locally oriented and do not outwardly call for a restoration of the Caliphate. Furthermore, such movements have as yet been unable to agree on a roadmap or a coherent model of Islamic governance, and dialog on this issue amongst Muslim intellectuals has been characterized by uncertainty and confusion amidst a broad range of viewpoints on what a modern Islamic state should look like. Mainstream Islamic institutions in Muslim countries today have generally not made the restoration of the Caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. == Famous caliphs == * Abu Bakr - First Four Righteously Guided Caliphs of the Sunnis. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars. * Umar ibn al-Khattab - Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persian Empire. * Uthman ibn Affan - Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels. * Ali ibn Abi Talib - Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict. * Muawiya I - First Umayyad caliph. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through all subsequent caliphates. * Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz - Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph. * Haroun al-Raschid - Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights. * Suleiman the Magnificent - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith. == Dynasties == The more important dynasties include: * The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661-750), followed by: * The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750-1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluke control) (1260-1517) * The Shi'ite Fatimids dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (not universally accepted; 909-1171) * The Umayyad Emirs of Cordoba, Spain, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliph of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929-1031) * The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145-1269) * The Ottomans (1453-1924) == List == Caliphate Titles Arabic words la:Calipha
Caliph
with regard to the pro-Khomeini spin - can someone who is versed in such things verify that it is accurate? "The holder of this title claims rulership over all Muslims. The Caliph combines four roles that are often distinct in the Western world. These roles are: Spiritual leader of Muslims, the one who guides Muslims in new matters, Religious leader of Muslims, the one who enforces Sharia, Political leader of Muslims, the one who conducts relations with other states and administers the government, Military leader of Muslims, the one who orders and conducts military affairs, in particular those regarding the conflict between dar al-Islam and dar al-Harb. In the Catholic Church, the first two are combined in the office of the Pope. The last two are combined in military dictatorships. Islam may be unique in being the only system to combine all four." Someone needs to read about the history of the Papacy. The Papacy was once very politically involved, and we have had at least one "warrior pope". I disagree with this simplification and characterization of matters. In fact, all leaders combine all four roles listed above with varying emphasis. And in the west this was and still is worse. Take one example. The King/Queen of England was head of the Church of England, while Muslims have no church for the Caliph to rule over and historically the power was distinct after the first 4 caliphs. Second, the King of England enforced the laws of the state with all the power apparatus of a government, but the laws were mostly formulated by his will and decree. The Caliph also enforced the laws of the state, but the laws were not largely made by him but rather derived mostly by others from religious principles and texts acting as a modern constitution. Third, the King of England acted exactly as the Caliph in managing political issues within and foreign affairs without, as do all rulers. Fourth, all rulers are the ultimate commanders of the armed forces, be they of military background or not. This is true of all times. Even in modern day America, president Bush, or whoever, combines solidly the last 3 roles, and continuously gets involved with and shapes the first.User:A.Khalil 18:27, Mar 8, 2005 (UTC) == List/Table == Shouldn't we have a list that covers all Caliphs from Abubakar to Abdul Mejid II. Something like:
- --User:IFaqeer 06:28, Sep 28, 2004 (UTC)
----
== Hasan ==
Hasan is often cited as the fifth caliph in many classical sources, for example the writings of Suyuti, however in reality he didn't rule as the actual caliph. I don't know where to list him, as he is not considered one of the Khalifa Rashidun nor is he an Umayyad.
User:DigiBullet 14:53, 16 Nov 2004 (UTC)
:I had listed him as the 5th, but someone [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Caliph&diff=7048338&oldid=7015851 removed] him. I agree that listing him directly under "Khulfa-e-Rashidun", as I did, was not the ideal thing to do. My original intention was to have parallel table cells for overlapping or competing claims to being Caliph. I will see what I can do when I next edit the page.User:IFaqeer—User:IFaqeer User talk:IFaqeer 20:14, Nov 16, 2004 (UTC)
::Hasan was never Caliph. He accepted the authority of Muawiyah, collected a pension from him, and lived a life of retirement. He belongs only in the Shi'a Imams list, not the caliphs.--User:AladdinSE 04:04, Mar 16, 2005 (UTC)
:::He's in the caliph list right now, so I've marked him as "No actual reign, sometimes considered the 5th caliph". Hope someone knowledgeable (Faqeer?) will improve. User:Nvj
== Ottomans ==
the first Ottoman sultan to claim the title of caliph was Muhammed i Sani, also known as Mehmed II and Fatih.
Selim was his grandson. It is true that his grand son selim defeated the other two caliphs of the time, the Safavid Shah and the Mameluke empire.
== The Turkish Parliament ==
''Although the title of Caliph is currently unused, it could conceivably be used again if the Turkish parliament were to decide to reactivate it.''
Who would be the Caliph? And does the Turkish parliament have the power to elect the Caliph over all Sunnis? And isn't religion separated from state in Turkey? - User:Lev 10:53, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)
:It would be disputed, certainly -- but what else is new? :) Let's say that, for whatever reason, the title "Pope" had passed out of favor a century ago and been officially placed in hibernation by the Italian government, which had overrun and militarily subdued the Vatican. Wouldn't you want to know that the mechanism (technically) existed to revive the title? The question "who would be the Pope" might be a secondary one for someone curious about the viability of *some unknown* modern figure re-establishing authority and legitimacy under the title "Pope." The fact that the title was transferred into a bureaucratic limbo, not abolished, is interesting to me, especially given the constant talk in the Islamic world about the viability, or lack of same, of a modern Caliph. Seems worth keeping. User:BrandonYusufToropov 11:26, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)
::First, I am not trying to say the statement is not interesting, but that it is wrong.
::Let's consider your hypothetical case. If Italian troops do not kill the Pope, the Catholic world will still acknowledge him as the Pope. If they do, a new Pope will not be elected for a merely technical reason – that the cardinals are under arrest. When all cardinals die, new ones can be elected and can meet outside Italy to elect a Pope. Therefore, the Italian government has not the power to permanently inactivate the title.
::The reason that the Turkish government could inactivate the title of Caliph is probably that he had no more actual power anyway, therefore the Moslems outside Turkey had no reason to keep supporting him. Now even if that government chooses to revive the office of Caliph, it cannot give anyone religious authority even over the Turkish Moslems, since it only has secular authority itself. Of course, it can revive the title, decreeing that X is henceforth to be called Caliph.
::I agree that the possibility of re-establishing the authority of Caliph at all is worth mentioning, and some info on the talk of the viability of a modern Caliph would also be appropriate.
::User:Lev 21:18, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)
::What makes the case different from my hypothetical is that the title had for quite a while been incapable of producing much respect in the Muslim world. (Recall that the Arabs revolted against the remnants of the "Caliphate" in WWI.). Be that as it may, Turkey's vote appears to have been the last gasp of the institution... yet the fact that the title has been placed in suspended animation -- rather than abolished outright -- is surely worthy of mention somewhere. The secular nature of Turkey's present government doesn't mean, of course, that it will always be so; remember that Islam is for some a failed empire with an enduring spiritual dimension, and for others a global governmental system in waiting. Thus a pan-Islamic governmental vision might (for instance) posit a federation of Muslim nations under a global Islamic authority, headed by a leader whose authority might be enhanced (though I doubt seriously that it would be sparked) by some kind of proclamation from the Turkish parliament. It's yet another drawn scenario, I realize, and highly unlikely, but what's intriguing to me about this is that the only thing anyone, Muslim or non-Muslim, appears to agree on is that the caliphate was last seen in Turkey. Given Islam's historic insistence that secular and religious distinctions are ultimately meaningless, Turkey's status as a secular government might be seen by imaginative Islamists as a "transitional phase." You recall how big the Marxists were on transitional phases, and how quick they were to declare them, often retroactively. :) User:BrandonYusufToropov 23:37, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)
== Minor note about transliteration ==
I've noticed several arabic words ending in at-ta al-marbouta transliterated on wikipedia with an 'h' at the end (khalifah, sunnah, etc.). As a (mere) 2nd semester student of Arabic language, this strikes me as very odd - it'd make more sense if such words were transcribed as ending in -a or even -at; I was wondering if anyone more knowledgable than me could shed some light on this issue?
: Its in the recitation rule or 'tajweed' that, the ta marbouta is recited as 'h' when the word (containing it) is at the end of recitation. Question: how to distinguish between normal ha, ta, and the ta marbouta, in transliteration? I think it's better to put the word in arabic script beside it. User:DiN 13:16, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)
::There is no uniformity in formal transliteration on the issue of "a" or "ah" representing a non-construct (idaafa) taa' marbuuta. In an idaafa, it should be written out with a t, as in sunnat al-nabi, madinat al-qahira, or what have you. Enc. of Islam and IJMES, two standards, don't use the h, but plenty of scholars do. john
== ABOUT TURKEY ==
As to the Chronology of Caliphs; It is mentioned in the text that the institution of Caliphate may be rectivated. But historically with the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, Abolition of the "Caliph Institution" became a vital principle of the Turkish Republic. Therefore to think to revive it (Caliphate) means to end the Turkish Republic. It will be a huge wrong-information... So i think this idea is neither useful nor it can be a kind of information. It should be taken in history that the Caliphate institute -which started in early Islamic history- ended with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's reforms. Also as to Sultan Mehmed II, he was not a Caliph (Khalifa); actually I think when Sultan Selim (who is in a later time than Mehmed II in chronologic line) was the first Ottoman Sultan who invaded Egypt in 1517 or so, and thus captured the State of Caliph. RecepY. 22 Mar 2005, Ankara
:On the latter point, the article on the Ottoman say:
::'' From 1517 onwards, the Ottoman Sultan was also the Caliph of Islam, and the Ottoman Empire was from 1517 until 1922 (or 1924) synonymous with the Caliphate, the Islamic State.''
:which I always thought accurate. However, since Mehmet II was the one under whom Constantinople came under Muslim rule, there might have been some kind of claim he made/was made for him...User:IFaqeer—User:IFaqeer User talk:IFaqeer 18:49, Mar 22, 2005 (UTC)
: from 1937 onwards to today, indeed one of the primary principles of the republic of Turkey is /was secularism. However, it cannot be denied that between 1926-1937 the primary rule of law in the republic of Turkey was the shariah, and the religion of the state was Islam. Most muslims nowadays do not want a reinstatement of the khalifate, and indeed while the institution was active it was many times a source of conflict instead of a source of unity. For imperialist western powers it would be easier if there was a khalifate, so they could easily colonise all islamic countries at once by just attacking and enslaving the khalief or by colonising the khalifate state, instead of conquering one by one sequentially like they are now, first afganistan, then iraq, maybe then syria etc. --User:Kahraman 12:26, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)
== Removed comparison to pope ==
I removed the comparison of the Caliph to the Pope -- it's quite misleading and biased towards a Western European viewpoint. There was NEVER a Pope accepted as the leader of all Christians. For the first few centuries of the Christian faith, it was an extremely loosely coordinated movement, with local leaders meeting occasionally at councils to define doctrine. The Roman Catholics may argue that the Roman bishop was always the head of all Christians, but the Copts, the Greek Orthodox, etc., all would disagree. The Muslim nostalgia for an early period of unity and religious purity would really find its analogue in the various Christian attempts to return to the Christianity of Acts and the Pauline letters.
Also, the position of the Papacy vis-a-vis political power is not a single position. It varied over time. Comparing one complicated topic to another doesn't necessarily illuminate either -- unless you take a whole book to do the comparison. User:Zora 21:24, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)
:I also think it is an invalid comparison but we should acknowledge that some comparisons have been made. There was never a Pope accepted as leader of all christendom, but many certainly made the claim that they were the soul legitimate leaders. The same can be said for Patriarchs of Constantinople after the great schism. Also, I don't think there was ever a single Caliph without some faction somewhere either contesting his claim or refusing his authority (For example: the Fattimid and Spanish Umayyads caliphates opposing the Abassids). Also, popes at various times held varying degrees of temporal power. Compare Pope John Paul II with Julius II, and the Papal States.--User:AladdinSE 04:45, Mar 26, 2005 (UTC)
I agree with Aladdin.User:IFaqeer—User:IFaqeer User talk:IFaqeer 07:26, Mar 26, 2005 (UTC)
== What is that? ==
:''(in 712 and 712)''
== Validity ==
I know my Sunni friend when I mentioned more than 4 caliphs gave me an incredulous look... so, what is commonly taught to Muslims about who are the Caliphs and should we mention that while the first four "rightly guided" ones are looked upon as legitimate leaders of the Muslim community (by Sunnis) that the rest are not. Also, during the fitna war thing... did not some support Ali and the others Bakr? so... were there some (before the Sunnis compromised and accepted all four) that would not have accepted Ali but would have the other three? I am confused on this issue. User:Grenavitar 03:21, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
: Western academics tend to call all the Umayyads and Abbasids caliphs. Islamic scholars may distinguish further, between leaders who ruled as kings (mlk, I think) and leaders who were religious exemplars as well. And yes, there were Sunni who did not accept Ali as one of the rightly guided caliphs. According to my books, Ali didn't get accepted into the Sunni canon until the 10th century CE. Until then, the list of caliphs went from Uthman to Muwaiya (sp?). Alos, under the Abbasids, most of the Umayyads were "demoted", except for Umar II, who was believed to have ruled righteously. Most of the Umayyad legal decisions that the Abbasids accepted as precedents were then credited to Umar II.
: Who accepts who as a legitimate leader is complicated. Are Sunnis even in accord on this? Dunno. Crone's book ''God's Caliph'' is very interesting on these points. User:Zora 04:00, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
== New sections ==
I added large new sections on how the Caliphate came to an end and contemporary Muslim attitudes toward the Caliphate. I am interested in hearing people's comments and critiques.
Note: All the edits from 23:08, 4 Jun 2005 to 16:15, 14 Jun 2005 are mine.
User:BalancingAct 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
----
Sorry it took me so long to notice your additions and respond.
The section on the demise of the caliphate seems OK, in and of itself, but it's too long and detailed. It throws the article off-balance. I'd suggest that you spin it off into Demise of the Ottoman caliphate. You can't just call it "the caliphate", because that would imply that the Ottomans were right in claiming it. I think that's arguable, and might well have many Muslims disputing it. Then we could link to that article from Caliphate and also from Turkish and Ottoman history articles.
The material re current views of the caliphate repeats earlier material and expands it a little. We should cut the earlier stuff down to one sentence and a pointer to the section.
When I have time (!) I'd like to add a section to the article re early Islamic views of the caliphate. Patricia Crone has written a fascinating book on this, called ''God's Caliph''. She argues that the earliest Muslims had something more like a Shi'a view of the caliphate, or imamate -- the caliph or imam as a divinely-inspired religious leader, and obedience to the caliph as crucial to Islam. She suggests that it soon became clear that the caliphs were not going to be religious exemplars, and that the whole tradition of the Sunni ulema and shari'a emerged as a way to protect the religious elements of Islam from the caliph's arbitrary temporal power. Right now the article is the usual Sunni ulema party line.
Thanks for the work. I hope we can keep improving the article. With Islam so controversial these days, any bit of NPOV light shed on the topic is useful. User:Zora 05:16, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
== Ali not accepted as rashidun immediately ==
I got that from Jonathan Berkey's book ''The Formation of Islam'', I believe. I'll have to dig for the reference. I think the date was 930 CE, but I may be wrong on the exact date.
The Ummayads wouldn't have accepted him as a rightful caliph, since their founder fought against him. The Abbasids came to power on the strength of the desire for a caliph from the ahl-ul-beyt, the house of Muhammad, but they were descendents of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle. So they had reasons to favor the claims of Abbas rather than Ali to having been the rightful inheritor when Muhammad died. User:Zora 20:02, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)
See other meanings of words starting from letter:
C
CA | CB | CD | CE | CF | CG | CH | CI | CJ | CK | CL | CM | CN | CO | CP | CR | CS | CT | CU | CW | CX | CY | CZ |Words begining with Caliph:
Caliph
Caliph
Caliphascist
Caliphate
Caliphate
Caliphate
Caliphates
Caliphate_of_Cordoba
Caliphs
Caliphs
Caliphs_of_Cordoba
Caliph_Ali
Caliph_of_Cordoba
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Caliph_Omar
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