
[[Image:platopainting.jpg|thumb|280px|Plato is credited with the inception of academia: the body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations.]] Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. The word comes from the ''Academy'' just outside ancient Athens, where the ''gymnasium'' was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space had formerly been an olive grove, hence the expression "the groves of Academe". By extension ''Academia'' has come to connote the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, England and France religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. The English adopted the form academy while the French adopted the forms academe and academie. An academic is a person who works as a researcher (and usually teacher) at a university or similar institution. In the United States, the term is approximately synonymous with professor. In the United Kingdom, various titles are used, typically fellow, lecturer, reader and professor (see also academic rank) . In other parts of the world, the term scholar is probably closer. Academic administrators are not typically included in this use of the term. Some sociologys have divided, but not limited, academia into four basic historical types: ancient academia, early academia, academic societies and the modern university. There are at least two models of academia: a Europe model developed since ancient times, as well as an United States model developed by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-1700s and Thomas Jefferson in the early 1800s. ==Structure== Academia is usually conceived of as divided into ''academic disciplines'' or ''fields'' of study. These have their roots in the subjects of the ancient trivium and quadrivium, which provided the model for Scholastic thought in the first universities in medieval Europe. The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have formed since medieval times; in general, academic fields have probably become more and more specialized since the Enlightenment, dividing their research into smaller and smaller areas. Because of this, ''interdisciplinary'' research is often prized in today's academy. It can also be made difficult by practical matters of administration and funding. In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right (cognitive science is one recent example). In short, there is a historical process behind the internal differentiation of the academy. Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their administrative structure, being divided internally into ''departments'' or ''programs'' in various fields of study. Each department is typically administered and funded separately by the academic institution, though there may be some overlap and faculty members, research and administrative staff may in some cases be shared among departments. In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure (usually including a University president and several dean (education)s) which is controlled by no single department, discipline, or field of thought. Also, the tenure system, a major component of academic employment and research, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought. ===Qualifications=== ''Main article'': Academic degree The Academic degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. Typically these are, in order of completion, bachelor's degree (awarded for completion of undergraduate study), master's degree, and doctorate (awarded after graduate school or postgraduate study). These are only currently being standardized in Europe as part of the Bologna process, as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some professional and Creativity fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees. ===Academic conferences=== Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on a paper they have written, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas. The papers are usually refereed first and only a smaller number of authors are invited to speak about their writing. The chance to speak can allow fuller explanation of points that may not have been clearly written or fully expanded upon in writing. The greater interactivity that is inherent in the conference format can allow for quicker feedback and criticism on the ideas discussed. Since papers are typically submitted ahead of time, conference attendees have had time to read the paper and be prepared with insightful questions if they wish. ===Conflicting goals=== Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. ====Practice and theory==== Academia is sometimes contrasted pejoratively with "practice", such as daily living, employment, and business. Critics of academia say that academic theory is insulated from the 'real world', and thus does not have to take into account the real effects, results, and risks of actually performing the actions which academics study. Academic insularity is sometimes referred to as the ivory tower. This often leads to a real or perceived tension between academics and practitioners in many fields of knowledge, particularly when an academic is critical of the actions of a practitioner. Depending on the degree of criticism, the practitioner's critique of academia could also be seen as anti-intellectualism. The balance to the view from the practitioner is that even if academia ''is'' insulated from practice in the real world, that does not mean academic study is valueless. In fact it is often seen that many academic developments turn out only much later to have great practical results. However, given that among practitioners there is a perception of academic insularity, it may increase the value and impact of the academian's studies and or opinion if she takes that insularity into account when discussing or offering criticism of a practitioner or a practice in general. ====Town and gown==== Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents – instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their parents' residence – in order to retain control of local politics. Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film ''Breaking Away'' dramatizes such a conflict. ====Commerce and scholarship==== The goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree. ==History== ===Ancient times=== ''Main article:'' Academy Academia takes its name from the Academy, a sacred sanctuary outside the city walls of ancient Athens. It was dedicated to the legendary hero Akademos and contained several olive groves, a Gymnasium (ancient Greece) and an area suited for intimate gatherings. In these gardens, largely planted and enchanced with statuary by its previous owner Cimon, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers who believed Plato would enlighten them. These informal sessions came to be known as the Academy. Plato later further developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what is known today as the Old Academy. Plato's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy. Carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium. ===Early development=== ''Main article:'' Medieval university Academia as a modern institution began to take shape in the Middle Ages (Anno Domini 350 to 1450). At this time, the Roman Empire had crumbled and new regimes were beginning to take shape throughout Western Europe. Europe had just come out of the Dark Ages, a period of mass illiteracy and loss of information. The only repositories of ancient knowledge were the Roman Catholic Church Monastery with hermits, monks and priests compiling all the world's knowledge into elaborate hand written books. The earliest precursors of the colleges and University were just being developed at these monasteries in order to redistribute the knowledge they had saved through the Dark Ages. One had to go to a monastery to learn about ancient Greece and Rome and the wealth of information created in those societies. Being schooled at a monastery meant academia was effectively restricted to men who wanted to become monks and priests. But by the 11th century, some Roman Catholic church leaders began a revolutionary campaign to proliferate the knowledge they had to the greater society of early Europe. They believed that Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Homer, Sophocles and the others belonged to the people and not just for the religious. The monks and priests moved out of the monasteries and went to the city cathedrals where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. Most notable of these schools were in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, though others were opened throughout Europe. Studying at these schools, now called universities, meant sitting through a method of education called the lecture. In a lecture, the master read aloud from manuscripts written by monks and priests while students sat at their pews reading along from their own hand-written copies of the massive amounts of texts. Only the master could determine if a student had achieved enough knowledge to graduate and organize lectures of their own. By the end of the 13th century, there were over 80 universities in Europe. ====Early methods==== =====Seven liberal arts===== The seven liberal arts became codified in late antiquity through textbooks by Varro and Martianus Capella, who offered the standardized structure through which men (and it was men, by and large, for women were excluded) could visualize the world of learning. The Liberal Arts consisted of the Trivium, the basic "three ways" of Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic, and the Quadrivium, the "four ways" of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy. Philosophy and Theology were the all-embracing studies that encompassed the Liberal Arts, but philosophy in the early Middle Ages was largely a matter of dialectic. The didactic allegory of the 5th-century pagan Martianus Capella's ''De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii'' ("The wedding of philology and Mercury") was of stupendous importance in fixing the unchanging formulas of Academia for the Latin West, from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until newly-available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became available in Western Europe in the 12th century. The conceptual scheme established by Martianus Capella, given Christian readings and interpretations, remained largely in effect in western Academia, even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas, until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. =====Encyclopedists===== Three medieval writers attempted to encompass the whole of Academia, the entire world of learning: Isidore of Seville, Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Aquinas. =====Abelard===== In the 12th century, French philosopher Peter Abelard instituted his own revolution in the world of academia with the 1123 publication of his book, ''Sic et Non''. He did away with the master reading from a text aloud in lectures and instead sat his students at desks in front of two separate texts contradicting each other. Instead of telling them which method was correct and which was wrong, he required his students to ask each other questions and come up with their own conclusions. Soon, almost all universities experimented with the use of the Abelard method. =====Scholasticism===== In the early 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas revolutionized academia once again with his popularization of scholasticism. Scholasticism employed the Abelard method of education but went further. Masters offered their students long, involved resolutions in examining two opposing texts and asked them to consider religious faith in their reasoning. The resolutions were based on newly rediscovered philosophies of Aristotle which tried to balance out reason with faith in God. ===Rise of academic societies=== ''Main article:'' Learned society Academic societies or learned society began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The Royal Society founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the American Revolution. Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia. ===Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries=== Academia began to splinter from its Christianity roots in 18th century colonial United States. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the College and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the University of Pennsylvania. For the first time, academia was established as a secular institution. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions. In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical humanism and the values introduced with the Protestant Reformation. Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit. The Academy movement in the U.S. in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the Old Northwest, in western New York State, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois. Dozens of academies were founded in the area, supported by private donations. During the Age of Enlightenment in 18th-century Europe, the academy started to change in Europe. In the beginning of the 19th century Wilhelm von Humboldt not only published his philosophical paper ''On the Limits of State Action'', but also directed the educational system in Prussia for a short time. He introduced an academic system that was much more accessible to the lower classes. ''Humboldt's Ideal'' was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia. ===Recent economic changes=== In the 1980s and 1990s significant changes in the economics of academic life began to be felt, identified by some as a catastrophe in the making and by others as a new era with potentially huge gains for the university. Some critics identified the changes as a new "corporatization of the university." Academic jobs have been traditionally viewed by many intellectuals as desirable, because of the autonomy and intellectual freedom they allow (especially because of the tenure system), despite their low pay compared to other professions requiring extensive education. Graduate students, despite their current low pay, were sometimes considered to be a privileged class of future scholars, because they were destined for comfortable lives and prestigious professorships. Now, by contrast, despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues (especially in the U.S.) well-paid professorial positions are rarer, replaced with poorly-paid adjunct positions and graduate-student labor. People with doctorates in the sciences and, to a lesser extent, mathematics, often find jobs outside of academia (or use part-time work in industry to supplement their incomes), but a Ph.D. in the humanities and many social sciences prepares the student primarily for academic employment. And the liberal-arts Ph.D.s for whom there are not tenure-track jobs must choose between poorly-paid adjunct positions and the non-academic job market, where the bulk of their education is not marketable. Indeed, with academic institutions producing Ph.D.s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track professorial positions they intend to create, there is little question that they are cognizant of the academic effects of this arrangement. The sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand" (''The Knowledge Factory'' 76). Most people who are knowledgeable of the academic job market advise prospective graduate students not to attend graduate school if they must pay for it; graduate students who are admitted without tuition remission and a reasonable stipend are forced to incur large debts that they will be unlikely to repay quickly. Some believe that, as a number of Baby Boomer professors retire, the academic job market will rebound. However, others predict that this will not result in an appreciable growth of tenure-track positions, as universities will merely fill their needs with low-paid adjunct positions. Aronowitz ascribed this problem to the economic restructuring of academia as a whole: :In fact, the program of restructuring on university campuses, which entails reducing full-time tenure-track positions in favor of part-time, temporary, and contingent jobs, has literally "fabricated" this situation. The idea of an academic "job market" based on the balance of supply and demand in an open competitive arena is a fiction whose effect is to persuade the candidate that she simply lost out because of bad luck or lack of talent. The truth is otherwise. (75–76) The effects of a growing pool of unemployed, underemployed, and undesirably employed Ph.D.s on the Western countries' economies as a whole is undetermined. ==Academic publishing== ''Main article:'' Academic publishing ===History of academic journals=== Among the earliest research journals were the Proceedings of meetings of the Royal Society in the 17th century. At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz used this approach. However, this method did not work well. Robert K. Merton, a sociologist, found that 92% of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72% in the 18th century, 59% by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33% by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals. The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today—nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "unicorn horn". It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any spider. Robert Hooke, the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. The spider promptly walked out of circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research. ===Current status and development=== Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "publish or perish". Except for generalist journals like ''Science (journal)'' or ''Nature (journal)'', the topics covered in any single journal have tended to narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, peer review by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and curriculum vitae. Andrew Odlyzko, an academian with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to Internet forums over the coming decade, by extending the interactivity of current Internet preprints. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive. ==Academic dress== ''Main article:'' Academic dress Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 1300s and 1400s, perhaps because most early scholars were priests or church officials. Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies. At some universities, such as the Universities of University of Oxford and University of Cambridge, undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, e.g. outside the UK or US, the custom is entirely absent. In general, in the US and UK recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a mortarboard cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the U.S., bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally black, but may have a silk lining denoting the subject of the degree, and are often edged in white fur. Recipients of a master's degree in the US or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. The hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary colour, and is lined with the university's colors. Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In general, doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown, tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear ''scarlet'' (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. The doctoral hood is identical in virtually every way to the master's hood, with the exception that it is generally longer, and the velvet strip is wider. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or ''tudor bonnet'' that resembles a tam o'shanter, from which a colored tassel is suspended. In modern times in the US and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th century and early 20th century, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. One notable exception is the University of Oxford, where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room. ==See also== * Academic administration * Academic art * Academic elitism * Academic freedom * Academic publishing * Academic rank * Academic writing * Anti-intellectualism * Education - There are many links there. * Graduate school * List of academic disciplines * Peer review * Scholarly method * School rivalry * Scientific method * Town and gown * University ==References== * Aronowitz, Stanley. ''The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning''. ISBN 0807031232. ==External links== * [http://palinurus.english.ucsb.edu/BIBLIO-UNIVERSITY-history-of-university.html Bibliography on the history of the university], provided by [http://palinurus.english.ucsb.edu/ Palinurus: The Academy and the Corporation], a web site from the University of California, Santa Barbara * [http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Frequently_Asked_Questions3&Template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=8086 An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide] Academia
Will we include artistic academies? The great libraries of the world (British and ..of Congress)? I think the article is so underdeveloped because Academia is such an ambiguous phrase - instituitons, people(?), bookS?--User:OldakQuill 11:36, 28 May 2004 (UTC) == Please note that this is a schizophrenically divided article. == I would like to note that this article is an uneasy pair with Academy. IMO it is very difficult to make any reasonable cut between what facts belong with one article, and which ones with the other. Can I suggest that they be merged, with the one being a redirect to the other? I have no opinion on which should redirect to which. -- Cimon : I think the current separation is fine, with this article discussin contemporary academia and the Academy article on Plato's Academy. The Academy article should probably have a disambiguation note pointing to this page up at the top, rather than just at the bottom. "Academia" never refers to Plato's Academy, so this page doesn't need disambiguation. -- User:Rbellin 21:29, 30 May 2004 (UTC) What about *historical development -- ie University classrooms - 13 of them recently excavated in Alexandria, Egypt - perhaps related to the Library in Alexandria. *relationship to teaching clerics -- as at Oxford and Cambridge. *Land grant act in the US - funding state universities *John Barth's ''Giles Goat-boy'' where the entire world is a university User:Ancheta Wis 21:55, 30 May 2004 (UTC) - or would it be better simply to leave all the historical view out. Certainly politics and fundraising are more fundamental to Academia than the statement of past history. I know of professors in prestigious departments of famous universities who are expected to find their own way for funding their department.User:Ancheta Wis 21:55, 30 May 2004 (UTC) : I'm of two minds about this. The history of the university is scattered around Wikipedia -- there's some discussion in the University article and a good article I just now found on the medieval university. This article should link those, but probably not reduplicate their entire contents (although it's indisputably relevant here). It seems like the University article might be the best place for this. -- User:Rbellin 22:47, 30 May 2004 (UTC) == publishing == This article now has significant overlap with the one on academic publishing. Doesn't the "history of the academic journal" belong there, not here? -- User:Rbellin 18:41, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC) :I would say mostly yes. A quick summary of the history of academic journals would be appropriate in academia though. I also think a much better summary of the information in academic publishing would be appropriate here in academia, with a link to academic publishing just like it is now. - User:Taxman 17:59, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC) ==Academic regalia== Would be a cool topic for a paragraph here, and could deserve its own article. If anyone knows something about this, put it in! User:Isomorphic 01:35, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC) ==FAC status== This article currently has one objection lobbied against it at Wikipedia:Featured article candidates. That objection is: ''the article starts by saying that sociologists list four basic types of academia; the article seems to only list three, missing out "academic societies". Could something be mentioned about these? :Done Also, the section on "Practice and Theory" lists some criticisms of academics being Ivory Tower-types; this could do with some rebuttal from the academic-POV for neutrality. :What do you think of the balance point I added? I know it is wordy, but I couldn't think of a better way to say it that maintained the accuracy and spirit of what I was getting at. Also, there's no discussion of academic conferences and workshops."''. :There is now a start, but it needs work. I don't have much personal experience with them. You guys have worked on this article so much - can you please address these objections so it can become a featured article? User:Raul654 06:51, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC) :Those where great criticisms and the article is and will be much better for them. I think they have been largely answered, but see also my comment above on publishing. That is the article's greatest weakness now I think. - User:Taxman 17:59, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC) ==Liberal Arts== This isn't good history: ''The Roman Catholic Church revolutionized their own system of educating young men at universities with the introduction of a standard core curriculum'': there was nothing rovolutionary about medieval education; universities gathered round professors and were in fact often at odds with the Church. ''After the ban on the Roman Catholic Church in England, the national Church of England seized control of the universities at Cambridge and Oxford.'' Just not true. User:Wetman 10:08, 19 Jun 2004 (UTC) :Well, you're going to have to provide some evidence to back that up. Everything I have known supports that the church largely controlled scholasticism, or were at least the largest producers of it. And by the way, don't remove that much material without a heads up on the talk page. - User:Taxman 12:56, Jun 19, 2004 (UTC) This is the text I replaced. Anything genuinely historical here that should go back? User:Wetman 03:41, 20 Jun 2004 (UTC) :The Roman Catholic Church revolutionized their own system of educating young men at universities with the introduction of a standard core curriculum that would be the same at each institution. They called it the seven liberal arts. The first three were called the trivium: grammar (reading and writing), rhetoric (literature and complicated forms of writing), logic (philosophy). The other four were electives called the quadrivium: arithmetic (number theory), geometry (number relations), music, and astronomy. Another subject was considered the eighth and highest form of liberal art: theology (study of God). :After the ban on the Roman Catholic Church in England, the national Church of England seized control of the universities at Cambridge and Oxford. They continued the practice of teaching the liberal arts curriculum introduced by Catholicism at these institutions, as well as in new schools begun by various Protestant denominations throughout Europe. ==Problems with recent addition of Purported decline section== The material has some potential merit, but currently has many problems. I propose removing it until some of these have been remedied: *Heavy US centricity. If the decline is just in the US is it really that important to overall academia? If just the US, then this belongs somewhere other than this article, if it is more widespread, then discussion of the greater problem is necessary. *Lots of weasel words - some believe, etc. *A complete lack of reference to actual sources. Currently the section reads like an essay, an example of Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not. Wikipedia is a secondary source. Addition of actual notable sources holding the POV noted would fix this problem, and the one above. I will remove the addition later today and move it here to the talk page if it is not fixed. - User:Taxman 12:01, Aug 19, 2004 (UTC) I think it might be best to leave it in a little longer and see what happens. Not everything can get fixed overnight, and this section points to a real issue in a lot of current discussions of academia. I think the major problem is the lack of sources -- this section really needs references and citations to some of the ever-growing literature on this subject. Maybe someone can begin to fix that if the section stays for a while; I can take a look through some books by Stanley Aronowitz and Cary Nelson for good citations later. -- User:Rbellin 14:36, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC) :Nice work on that especially for NPOV and citing sources - User:Taxman 16:32, Aug 19, 2004 (UTC) Thanks -- but I think it still needs a lot of work. Once we get a better summary of the issues, I'd love to spawn a separate full-fledged article on the corporatization of the university; there's a lot of material out there from the last couple of decades, but summarizing it is no simple task. There's some relevant material in Wikipedia articles on graduate students and academic publishing as well (probably elsewhere too). -- User:Rbellin 16:53, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC) == Order of subsections == I just read through the article again and found it to read like a jumble of unrelated chunks. Can we reorder and reorganize the outline structure so it fits together better? My vote is for something like this: * Intro * Structure ** Qualifications ** Conferences (or fold this into Societies) * History ** Ancient ** Early (retitle "Medieval") *** (all its subsections remain intact) ** Modern (retitle 18th + 19th Century) ** Economic changes * Publishing * Dress * Practice & theory (or delete; this section doesn't seem to add much) * See also, external links, references as usual Any comments on this? I'll wait at least a few days before changing the article, but others are welcome to Wikipedia:be bold and do it now. -- User:Rbellin 15:52, 21 Aug 2004 (UTC) :Please don't retitle Early to Medieval -they are not the same and the section in this article is not limited to the Medieval period. Practice and theory should be earlier and expanded -somewhere we need to fit in town versus gown issues, commercial versus pure research, etc. You seem to have missed Societies in your structure. It is currently in its position as the bridge between early and modern structures. This article is in need of several other expansions -our discussion of modern universities covers only the U.S. and only till the early 1800's. And even then no mention of land grant colleges, practical colleges -teaching colleges, mining schools, etc., admission of women. User:Rmhermen 23:09, Aug 26, 2004 (UTC) : I've reordered things and introduced new sections for the conflicts you mentioned (town/gown, research/commerce). I don't get your point about the "Early" section not referring solely to the middle ages (since it begins with a reference to Medieval university and refers exclusively to medieval dates), but I retained the title "early" so that it can be expanded later on to include whatever else is necessary. Comments and changes are always welcome, of course.-- User:Rbellin 15:26, 28 Aug 2004 (UTC) == Text for removal == There are some snippets in this article that seem to me to merit removal. From "Economic Changes", some pure unattributed opinion: : Cynical observers remark that the low levels of pay and respect given to liberal arts Ph.D.s (and even moreso to secondary and elementary teachers) are testament to the fact that our society no longer values disciplines such as philosophy, literature, and other humanities and may represent an even more pervasive decline in American society, education, and values not limited merely to academia. : The poor academic job market is considered to be one of the early 21st-century's three most prominent spark factors, along with healthcare and housing costs. And from "History of academic journals", a completely false historical generalization: : For over 2,000 years following the founding of Plato's Academy, research was, for the most part, communicated orally. Little, if any, research was published: publishing was expensive, and academics typically just circulated papers, letters, or notes of their work-in-process among a small group of their peers. Can these be fixed (factually corrected and better attributed), or should they just be scrapped as I suspect? I have some doubts about the appropriateness of including here exaggerated claims about the demise of traditional publishing attributed to Andrew Odlyzko (apparently from papers like [http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/tragic.loss.txt] and [http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_2/odlyzko/]), as well. As far as I'm aware Odlyzko and these publications are not widely cited nor widely discussed in the academy as a whole, and his articles seem to discuss academic publishing in mathematics (his own field) almost exclusively. Can someone improve that section with better citations and possibly also move it to a more appropriate article like academic publishing? -- User:Rbellin 22:45, 31 Aug 2004 (UTC) I've gone ahead with these two deletions, since there's been no comment. If anyone is interested in saving this text, please feel free to reintroduce these themes in the article with some citations to sources. -- User:Rbellin 07:47, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC) :I would have to agree with their removal until more factually stated and supported with references. - User:Taxman 18:28, Nov 15, 2004 (UTC) ==Lack of References== In compiling my User:Taxman/Featured articles with references problems, I noticed that ironically, this article has none! That means it no longer meets the current Wikipedia:What is a featured article. I'm sure there are some good references about academia in general and especially some of the specific sections. Please help by Wikipedia:Cite sources used for this article and by finding other good references for it. Thank you - User:Taxman 15:46, Dec 4, 2004 (UTC)
[[Image:platopainting.jpg|thumb|150px|An artist's depiction of Plato.]] Academia is a general term for the whole of higher education and research. The word comes from the Greek language referring to the larger body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations. In the 17th century, England and France religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. , and a list of academic disciplines. Culture Knowledge zh-cn:Category:学术
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Words begining with Academia:
Academia
Academia
Academia
Academia_Brasileira_de_Ciências
Academia_Brasileira_de_Letras
Academia_Catavencu
Academia_del_Perpetuo_Socorro
Academia_de_la_Llingua_Asturiana
Academia_de_Stiinte,_Literatura_si_Arte
Academia_de_Studii_Economice
Academia_de_Studii_Economice_din_Bucuresti
Academia_Gustaviana
Academia_Naturae_Curiosorum
Academia_operosorum_Labacensis
Academia_pro_Interlingua
Academia_Romana
Academia_Secretorum_Naturae
Academia_secretorum_naturae
Academia_Sinica
Academia_Sinica_(Taiwan)
Academia_Sinica_in_Taiwan
Academia
[[Image:platopainting.jpg|thumb|280px|Plato is credited with the inception of academia: the body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations.]] Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. The word comes from the ''Academy'' just outside ancient Athens, where the ''gymnasium'' was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space had formerly been an olive grove, hence the expression "the groves of Academe". By extension ''Academia'' has come to connote the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, England and France religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. The English adopted the form academy while the French adopted the forms academe and academie. An academic is a person who works as a researcher (and usually teacher) at a university or similar institution. In the United States, the term is approximately synonymous with professor. In the United Kingdom, various titles are used, typically fellow, lecturer, reader and professor (see also academic rank) . In other parts of the world, the term scholar is probably closer. Academic administrators are not typically included in this use of the term. Some sociologys have divided, but not limited, academia into four basic historical types: ancient academia, early academia, academic societies and the modern university. There are at least two models of academia: a Europe model developed since ancient times, as well as an United States model developed by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-1700s and Thomas Jefferson in the early 1800s. ==Structure== Academia is usually conceived of as divided into ''academic disciplines'' or ''fields'' of study. These have their roots in the subjects of the ancient trivium and quadrivium, which provided the model for Scholastic thought in the first universities in medieval Europe. The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have formed since medieval times; in general, academic fields have probably become more and more specialized since the Enlightenment, dividing their research into smaller and smaller areas. Because of this, ''interdisciplinary'' research is often prized in today's academy. It can also be made difficult by practical matters of administration and funding. In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right (cognitive science is one recent example). In short, there is a historical process behind the internal differentiation of the academy. Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their administrative structure, being divided internally into ''departments'' or ''programs'' in various fields of study. Each department is typically administered and funded separately by the academic institution, though there may be some overlap and faculty members, research and administrative staff may in some cases be shared among departments. In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure (usually including a University president and several dean (education)s) which is controlled by no single department, discipline, or field of thought. Also, the tenure system, a major component of academic employment and research, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought. ===Qualifications=== ''Main article'': Academic degree The Academic degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. Typically these are, in order of completion, bachelor's degree (awarded for completion of undergraduate study), master's degree, and doctorate (awarded after graduate school or postgraduate study). These are only currently being standardized in Europe as part of the Bologna process, as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some professional and Creativity fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees. ===Academic conferences=== Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on a paper they have written, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas. The papers are usually refereed first and only a smaller number of authors are invited to speak about their writing. The chance to speak can allow fuller explanation of points that may not have been clearly written or fully expanded upon in writing. The greater interactivity that is inherent in the conference format can allow for quicker feedback and criticism on the ideas discussed. Since papers are typically submitted ahead of time, conference attendees have had time to read the paper and be prepared with insightful questions if they wish. ===Conflicting goals=== Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. ====Practice and theory==== Academia is sometimes contrasted pejoratively with "practice", such as daily living, employment, and business. Critics of academia say that academic theory is insulated from the 'real world', and thus does not have to take into account the real effects, results, and risks of actually performing the actions which academics study. Academic insularity is sometimes referred to as the ivory tower. This often leads to a real or perceived tension between academics and practitioners in many fields of knowledge, particularly when an academic is critical of the actions of a practitioner. Depending on the degree of criticism, the practitioner's critique of academia could also be seen as anti-intellectualism. The balance to the view from the practitioner is that even if academia ''is'' insulated from practice in the real world, that does not mean academic study is valueless. In fact it is often seen that many academic developments turn out only much later to have great practical results. However, given that among practitioners there is a perception of academic insularity, it may increase the value and impact of the academian's studies and or opinion if she takes that insularity into account when discussing or offering criticism of a practitioner or a practice in general. ====Town and gown==== Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents – instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their parents' residence – in order to retain control of local politics. Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film ''Breaking Away'' dramatizes such a conflict. ====Commerce and scholarship==== The goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree. ==History== ===Ancient times=== ''Main article:'' Academy Academia takes its name from the Academy, a sacred sanctuary outside the city walls of ancient Athens. It was dedicated to the legendary hero Akademos and contained several olive groves, a Gymnasium (ancient Greece) and an area suited for intimate gatherings. In these gardens, largely planted and enchanced with statuary by its previous owner Cimon, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers who believed Plato would enlighten them. These informal sessions came to be known as the Academy. Plato later further developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what is known today as the Old Academy. Plato's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy. Carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium. ===Early development=== ''Main article:'' Medieval university Academia as a modern institution began to take shape in the Middle Ages (Anno Domini 350 to 1450). At this time, the Roman Empire had crumbled and new regimes were beginning to take shape throughout Western Europe. Europe had just come out of the Dark Ages, a period of mass illiteracy and loss of information. The only repositories of ancient knowledge were the Roman Catholic Church Monastery with hermits, monks and priests compiling all the world's knowledge into elaborate hand written books. The earliest precursors of the colleges and University were just being developed at these monasteries in order to redistribute the knowledge they had saved through the Dark Ages. One had to go to a monastery to learn about ancient Greece and Rome and the wealth of information created in those societies. Being schooled at a monastery meant academia was effectively restricted to men who wanted to become monks and priests. But by the 11th century, some Roman Catholic church leaders began a revolutionary campaign to proliferate the knowledge they had to the greater society of early Europe. They believed that Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Homer, Sophocles and the others belonged to the people and not just for the religious. The monks and priests moved out of the monasteries and went to the city cathedrals where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. Most notable of these schools were in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, though others were opened throughout Europe. Studying at these schools, now called universities, meant sitting through a method of education called the lecture. In a lecture, the master read aloud from manuscripts written by monks and priests while students sat at their pews reading along from their own hand-written copies of the massive amounts of texts. Only the master could determine if a student had achieved enough knowledge to graduate and organize lectures of their own. By the end of the 13th century, there were over 80 universities in Europe. ====Early methods==== =====Seven liberal arts===== The seven liberal arts became codified in late antiquity through textbooks by Varro and Martianus Capella, who offered the standardized structure through which men (and it was men, by and large, for women were excluded) could visualize the world of learning. The Liberal Arts consisted of the Trivium, the basic "three ways" of Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic, and the Quadrivium, the "four ways" of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy. Philosophy and Theology were the all-embracing studies that encompassed the Liberal Arts, but philosophy in the early Middle Ages was largely a matter of dialectic. The didactic allegory of the 5th-century pagan Martianus Capella's ''De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii'' ("The wedding of philology and Mercury") was of stupendous importance in fixing the unchanging formulas of Academia for the Latin West, from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until newly-available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became available in Western Europe in the 12th century. The conceptual scheme established by Martianus Capella, given Christian readings and interpretations, remained largely in effect in western Academia, even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas, until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. =====Encyclopedists===== Three medieval writers attempted to encompass the whole of Academia, the entire world of learning: Isidore of Seville, Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Aquinas. =====Abelard===== In the 12th century, French philosopher Peter Abelard instituted his own revolution in the world of academia with the 1123 publication of his book, ''Sic et Non''. He did away with the master reading from a text aloud in lectures and instead sat his students at desks in front of two separate texts contradicting each other. Instead of telling them which method was correct and which was wrong, he required his students to ask each other questions and come up with their own conclusions. Soon, almost all universities experimented with the use of the Abelard method. =====Scholasticism===== In the early 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas revolutionized academia once again with his popularization of scholasticism. Scholasticism employed the Abelard method of education but went further. Masters offered their students long, involved resolutions in examining two opposing texts and asked them to consider religious faith in their reasoning. The resolutions were based on newly rediscovered philosophies of Aristotle which tried to balance out reason with faith in God. ===Rise of academic societies=== ''Main article:'' Learned society Academic societies or learned society began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The Royal Society founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the American Revolution. Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia. ===Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries=== Academia began to splinter from its Christianity roots in 18th century colonial United States. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the College and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the University of Pennsylvania. For the first time, academia was established as a secular institution. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions. In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical humanism and the values introduced with the Protestant Reformation. Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit. The Academy movement in the U.S. in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the Old Northwest, in western New York State, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois. Dozens of academies were founded in the area, supported by private donations. During the Age of Enlightenment in 18th-century Europe, the academy started to change in Europe. In the beginning of the 19th century Wilhelm von Humboldt not only published his philosophical paper ''On the Limits of State Action'', but also directed the educational system in Prussia for a short time. He introduced an academic system that was much more accessible to the lower classes. ''Humboldt's Ideal'' was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia. ===Recent economic changes=== In the 1980s and 1990s significant changes in the economics of academic life began to be felt, identified by some as a catastrophe in the making and by others as a new era with potentially huge gains for the university. Some critics identified the changes as a new "corporatization of the university." Academic jobs have been traditionally viewed by many intellectuals as desirable, because of the autonomy and intellectual freedom they allow (especially because of the tenure system), despite their low pay compared to other professions requiring extensive education. Graduate students, despite their current low pay, were sometimes considered to be a privileged class of future scholars, because they were destined for comfortable lives and prestigious professorships. Now, by contrast, despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues (especially in the U.S.) well-paid professorial positions are rarer, replaced with poorly-paid adjunct positions and graduate-student labor. People with doctorates in the sciences and, to a lesser extent, mathematics, often find jobs outside of academia (or use part-time work in industry to supplement their incomes), but a Ph.D. in the humanities and many social sciences prepares the student primarily for academic employment. And the liberal-arts Ph.D.s for whom there are not tenure-track jobs must choose between poorly-paid adjunct positions and the non-academic job market, where the bulk of their education is not marketable. Indeed, with academic institutions producing Ph.D.s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track professorial positions they intend to create, there is little question that they are cognizant of the academic effects of this arrangement. The sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand" (''The Knowledge Factory'' 76). Most people who are knowledgeable of the academic job market advise prospective graduate students not to attend graduate school if they must pay for it; graduate students who are admitted without tuition remission and a reasonable stipend are forced to incur large debts that they will be unlikely to repay quickly. Some believe that, as a number of Baby Boomer professors retire, the academic job market will rebound. However, others predict that this will not result in an appreciable growth of tenure-track positions, as universities will merely fill their needs with low-paid adjunct positions. Aronowitz ascribed this problem to the economic restructuring of academia as a whole: :In fact, the program of restructuring on university campuses, which entails reducing full-time tenure-track positions in favor of part-time, temporary, and contingent jobs, has literally "fabricated" this situation. The idea of an academic "job market" based on the balance of supply and demand in an open competitive arena is a fiction whose effect is to persuade the candidate that she simply lost out because of bad luck or lack of talent. The truth is otherwise. (75–76) The effects of a growing pool of unemployed, underemployed, and undesirably employed Ph.D.s on the Western countries' economies as a whole is undetermined. ==Academic publishing== ''Main article:'' Academic publishing ===History of academic journals=== Among the earliest research journals were the Proceedings of meetings of the Royal Society in the 17th century. At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz used this approach. However, this method did not work well. Robert K. Merton, a sociologist, found that 92% of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72% in the 18th century, 59% by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33% by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals. The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today—nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "unicorn horn". It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any spider. Robert Hooke, the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. The spider promptly walked out of circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research. ===Current status and development=== Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "publish or perish". Except for generalist journals like ''Science (journal)'' or ''Nature (journal)'', the topics covered in any single journal have tended to narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, peer review by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and curriculum vitae. Andrew Odlyzko, an academian with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to Internet forums over the coming decade, by extending the interactivity of current Internet preprints. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive. ==Academic dress== ''Main article:'' Academic dress Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 1300s and 1400s, perhaps because most early scholars were priests or church officials. Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies. At some universities, such as the Universities of University of Oxford and University of Cambridge, undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, e.g. outside the UK or US, the custom is entirely absent. In general, in the US and UK recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a mortarboard cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the U.S., bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally black, but may have a silk lining denoting the subject of the degree, and are often edged in white fur. Recipients of a master's degree in the US or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. The hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary colour, and is lined with the university's colors. Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In general, doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown, tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear ''scarlet'' (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. The doctoral hood is identical in virtually every way to the master's hood, with the exception that it is generally longer, and the velvet strip is wider. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or ''tudor bonnet'' that resembles a tam o'shanter, from which a colored tassel is suspended. In modern times in the US and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th century and early 20th century, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. One notable exception is the University of Oxford, where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room. ==See also== * Academic administration * Academic art * Academic elitism * Academic freedom * Academic publishing * Academic rank * Academic writing * Anti-intellectualism * Education - There are many links there. * Graduate school * List of academic disciplines * Peer review * Scholarly method * School rivalry * Scientific method * Town and gown * University ==References== * Aronowitz, Stanley. ''The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning''. ISBN 0807031232. ==External links== * [http://palinurus.english.ucsb.edu/BIBLIO-UNIVERSITY-history-of-university.html Bibliography on the history of the university], provided by [http://palinurus.english.ucsb.edu/ Palinurus: The Academy and the Corporation], a web site from the University of California, Santa Barbara * [http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Frequently_Asked_Questions3&Template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=8086 An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide] Academia
Academia
Will we include artistic academies? The great libraries of the world (British and ..of Congress)? I think the article is so underdeveloped because Academia is such an ambiguous phrase - instituitons, people(?), bookS?--User:OldakQuill 11:36, 28 May 2004 (UTC) == Please note that this is a schizophrenically divided article. == I would like to note that this article is an uneasy pair with Academy. IMO it is very difficult to make any reasonable cut between what facts belong with one article, and which ones with the other. Can I suggest that they be merged, with the one being a redirect to the other? I have no opinion on which should redirect to which. -- Cimon : I think the current separation is fine, with this article discussin contemporary academia and the Academy article on Plato's Academy. The Academy article should probably have a disambiguation note pointing to this page up at the top, rather than just at the bottom. "Academia" never refers to Plato's Academy, so this page doesn't need disambiguation. -- User:Rbellin 21:29, 30 May 2004 (UTC) What about *historical development -- ie University classrooms - 13 of them recently excavated in Alexandria, Egypt - perhaps related to the Library in Alexandria. *relationship to teaching clerics -- as at Oxford and Cambridge. *Land grant act in the US - funding state universities *John Barth's ''Giles Goat-boy'' where the entire world is a university User:Ancheta Wis 21:55, 30 May 2004 (UTC) - or would it be better simply to leave all the historical view out. Certainly politics and fundraising are more fundamental to Academia than the statement of past history. I know of professors in prestigious departments of famous universities who are expected to find their own way for funding their department.User:Ancheta Wis 21:55, 30 May 2004 (UTC) : I'm of two minds about this. The history of the university is scattered around Wikipedia -- there's some discussion in the University article and a good article I just now found on the medieval university. This article should link those, but probably not reduplicate their entire contents (although it's indisputably relevant here). It seems like the University article might be the best place for this. -- User:Rbellin 22:47, 30 May 2004 (UTC) == publishing == This article now has significant overlap with the one on academic publishing. Doesn't the "history of the academic journal" belong there, not here? -- User:Rbellin 18:41, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC) :I would say mostly yes. A quick summary of the history of academic journals would be appropriate in academia though. I also think a much better summary of the information in academic publishing would be appropriate here in academia, with a link to academic publishing just like it is now. - User:Taxman 17:59, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC) ==Academic regalia== Would be a cool topic for a paragraph here, and could deserve its own article. If anyone knows something about this, put it in! User:Isomorphic 01:35, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC) ==FAC status== This article currently has one objection lobbied against it at Wikipedia:Featured article candidates. That objection is: ''the article starts by saying that sociologists list four basic types of academia; the article seems to only list three, missing out "academic societies". Could something be mentioned about these? :Done Also, the section on "Practice and Theory" lists some criticisms of academics being Ivory Tower-types; this could do with some rebuttal from the academic-POV for neutrality. :What do you think of the balance point I added? I know it is wordy, but I couldn't think of a better way to say it that maintained the accuracy and spirit of what I was getting at. Also, there's no discussion of academic conferences and workshops."''. :There is now a start, but it needs work. I don't have much personal experience with them. You guys have worked on this article so much - can you please address these objections so it can become a featured article? User:Raul654 06:51, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC) :Those where great criticisms and the article is and will be much better for them. I think they have been largely answered, but see also my comment above on publishing. That is the article's greatest weakness now I think. - User:Taxman 17:59, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC) ==Liberal Arts== This isn't good history: ''The Roman Catholic Church revolutionized their own system of educating young men at universities with the introduction of a standard core curriculum'': there was nothing rovolutionary about medieval education; universities gathered round professors and were in fact often at odds with the Church. ''After the ban on the Roman Catholic Church in England, the national Church of England seized control of the universities at Cambridge and Oxford.'' Just not true. User:Wetman 10:08, 19 Jun 2004 (UTC) :Well, you're going to have to provide some evidence to back that up. Everything I have known supports that the church largely controlled scholasticism, or were at least the largest producers of it. And by the way, don't remove that much material without a heads up on the talk page. - User:Taxman 12:56, Jun 19, 2004 (UTC) This is the text I replaced. Anything genuinely historical here that should go back? User:Wetman 03:41, 20 Jun 2004 (UTC) :The Roman Catholic Church revolutionized their own system of educating young men at universities with the introduction of a standard core curriculum that would be the same at each institution. They called it the seven liberal arts. The first three were called the trivium: grammar (reading and writing), rhetoric (literature and complicated forms of writing), logic (philosophy). The other four were electives called the quadrivium: arithmetic (number theory), geometry (number relations), music, and astronomy. Another subject was considered the eighth and highest form of liberal art: theology (study of God). :After the ban on the Roman Catholic Church in England, the national Church of England seized control of the universities at Cambridge and Oxford. They continued the practice of teaching the liberal arts curriculum introduced by Catholicism at these institutions, as well as in new schools begun by various Protestant denominations throughout Europe. ==Problems with recent addition of Purported decline section== The material has some potential merit, but currently has many problems. I propose removing it until some of these have been remedied: *Heavy US centricity. If the decline is just in the US is it really that important to overall academia? If just the US, then this belongs somewhere other than this article, if it is more widespread, then discussion of the greater problem is necessary. *Lots of weasel words - some believe, etc. *A complete lack of reference to actual sources. Currently the section reads like an essay, an example of Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not. Wikipedia is a secondary source. Addition of actual notable sources holding the POV noted would fix this problem, and the one above. I will remove the addition later today and move it here to the talk page if it is not fixed. - User:Taxman 12:01, Aug 19, 2004 (UTC) I think it might be best to leave it in a little longer and see what happens. Not everything can get fixed overnight, and this section points to a real issue in a lot of current discussions of academia. I think the major problem is the lack of sources -- this section really needs references and citations to some of the ever-growing literature on this subject. Maybe someone can begin to fix that if the section stays for a while; I can take a look through some books by Stanley Aronowitz and Cary Nelson for good citations later. -- User:Rbellin 14:36, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC) :Nice work on that especially for NPOV and citing sources - User:Taxman 16:32, Aug 19, 2004 (UTC) Thanks -- but I think it still needs a lot of work. Once we get a better summary of the issues, I'd love to spawn a separate full-fledged article on the corporatization of the university; there's a lot of material out there from the last couple of decades, but summarizing it is no simple task. There's some relevant material in Wikipedia articles on graduate students and academic publishing as well (probably elsewhere too). -- User:Rbellin 16:53, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC) == Order of subsections == I just read through the article again and found it to read like a jumble of unrelated chunks. Can we reorder and reorganize the outline structure so it fits together better? My vote is for something like this: * Intro * Structure ** Qualifications ** Conferences (or fold this into Societies) * History ** Ancient ** Early (retitle "Medieval") *** (all its subsections remain intact) ** Modern (retitle 18th + 19th Century) ** Economic changes * Publishing * Dress * Practice & theory (or delete; this section doesn't seem to add much) * See also, external links, references as usual Any comments on this? I'll wait at least a few days before changing the article, but others are welcome to Wikipedia:be bold and do it now. -- User:Rbellin 15:52, 21 Aug 2004 (UTC) :Please don't retitle Early to Medieval -they are not the same and the section in this article is not limited to the Medieval period. Practice and theory should be earlier and expanded -somewhere we need to fit in town versus gown issues, commercial versus pure research, etc. You seem to have missed Societies in your structure. It is currently in its position as the bridge between early and modern structures. This article is in need of several other expansions -our discussion of modern universities covers only the U.S. and only till the early 1800's. And even then no mention of land grant colleges, practical colleges -teaching colleges, mining schools, etc., admission of women. User:Rmhermen 23:09, Aug 26, 2004 (UTC) : I've reordered things and introduced new sections for the conflicts you mentioned (town/gown, research/commerce). I don't get your point about the "Early" section not referring solely to the middle ages (since it begins with a reference to Medieval university and refers exclusively to medieval dates), but I retained the title "early" so that it can be expanded later on to include whatever else is necessary. Comments and changes are always welcome, of course.-- User:Rbellin 15:26, 28 Aug 2004 (UTC) == Text for removal == There are some snippets in this article that seem to me to merit removal. From "Economic Changes", some pure unattributed opinion: : Cynical observers remark that the low levels of pay and respect given to liberal arts Ph.D.s (and even moreso to secondary and elementary teachers) are testament to the fact that our society no longer values disciplines such as philosophy, literature, and other humanities and may represent an even more pervasive decline in American society, education, and values not limited merely to academia. : The poor academic job market is considered to be one of the early 21st-century's three most prominent spark factors, along with healthcare and housing costs. And from "History of academic journals", a completely false historical generalization: : For over 2,000 years following the founding of Plato's Academy, research was, for the most part, communicated orally. Little, if any, research was published: publishing was expensive, and academics typically just circulated papers, letters, or notes of their work-in-process among a small group of their peers. Can these be fixed (factually corrected and better attributed), or should they just be scrapped as I suspect? I have some doubts about the appropriateness of including here exaggerated claims about the demise of traditional publishing attributed to Andrew Odlyzko (apparently from papers like [http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/tragic.loss.txt] and [http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue6_2/odlyzko/]), as well. As far as I'm aware Odlyzko and these publications are not widely cited nor widely discussed in the academy as a whole, and his articles seem to discuss academic publishing in mathematics (his own field) almost exclusively. Can someone improve that section with better citations and possibly also move it to a more appropriate article like academic publishing? -- User:Rbellin 22:45, 31 Aug 2004 (UTC) I've gone ahead with these two deletions, since there's been no comment. If anyone is interested in saving this text, please feel free to reintroduce these themes in the article with some citations to sources. -- User:Rbellin 07:47, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC) :I would have to agree with their removal until more factually stated and supported with references. - User:Taxman 18:28, Nov 15, 2004 (UTC) ==Lack of References== In compiling my User:Taxman/Featured articles with references problems, I noticed that ironically, this article has none! That means it no longer meets the current Wikipedia:What is a featured article. I'm sure there are some good references about academia in general and especially some of the specific sections. Please help by Wikipedia:Cite sources used for this article and by finding other good references for it. Thank you - User:Taxman 15:46, Dec 4, 2004 (UTC)
Academia
[[Image:platopainting.jpg|thumb|150px|An artist's depiction of Plato.]] Academia is a general term for the whole of higher education and research. The word comes from the Greek language referring to the larger body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations. In the 17th century, England and France religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. , and a list of academic disciplines. Culture Knowledge zh-cn:Category:学术
See other meanings of words starting from letter:
A
AB | AC | AD | AE | AF | AG | AH | AI | AJ | AK | AL | AM | AN | AO | AP | AR | AS | AT | AU | AW | AX | AY | AZ |Words begining with Academia:
Academia
Academia
Academia
Academia_Brasileira_de_Ciências
Academia_Brasileira_de_Letras
Academia_Catavencu
Academia_del_Perpetuo_Socorro
Academia_de_la_Llingua_Asturiana
Academia_de_Stiinte,_Literatura_si_Arte
Academia_de_Studii_Economice
Academia_de_Studii_Economice_din_Bucuresti
Academia_Gustaviana
Academia_Naturae_Curiosorum
Academia_operosorum_Labacensis
Academia_pro_Interlingua
Academia_Romana
Academia_Secretorum_Naturae
Academia_secretorum_naturae
Academia_Sinica
Academia_Sinica_(Taiwan)
Academia_Sinica_in_Taiwan
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